Class 




Book 



SMITHSONIAN. DEPOSIT 



7 '•. ^""^ 







Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/peoplesbookofancOObrow 



THE 



PEOPLE'S BOOK 



AICIEIT AID lODERI HISTORY; 



COMPRISING 



THE OLD WORLD: 



THE JEWS, ASSYRIA, EGYPT, GREECE, 

ROME, PERSIA, INDIA, CHINA, THE MAHOMETANS, 

SPAIN, GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, SWEDEN AND NORWAY, 

' THE NETHERLANDS, DENMARK, PORTUGAL, 

ITALY, SWITZERLAND, ETC. 



HENRJ HOWARl) BROWNELL, A, M 



NUMEROUS COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS, 

BY EMINENT ARTISTS. 




H ARTFOED: 
PUBLISHED BY L. STEBBINS. 

1851. 



, OF CONGRESS 



ENTERED, ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1851, BY 

LUCIUS STEBBINS, 

IN THE CLERK'S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT OF CONNECTICUT. 



FOUNDRY OF 

SILAS ANDRUS AND SON, 

HARTFORD. 



PRESS OF 
F. C. GTJTrERREZ, 

NEW-TORE. 



^%-S 

^^^ 



INTRODUCTION. 



The attempt has been made, in the following work, to furnish, 
within limits accessible to the general reader, a succinct and con- 
nected historical account of such nations as have played the most 
important, conspicuous, or interesting parts in the progress of the 
World. To most minds, undoubtedly, the chief charm of such an 
account consists in the frequency of personal details ; and though 
the plan of this book necessarily precludes the narration of many 
extraneous events, the more momentous passages of history are 
displayed as fully as possible, and scenes characteristic of the age, 
or of any celebrated personage, are related with as much minuteness 
as may consist with the limits of the work. 

Much attention has been paid to the frequency and accuracy of 
dates^ so indispensable to a clear and connected view of the history 
of nations, especially in their mutual relations ; and the arrangement 
of the several articles has been made, as far as might be, with an 
especial view to the general connection and progress of mankind. 
Eepetition, as far as possible, has been avoided, and where, as it 
frequently occurs, the history of one nation is for a long period 
involved in that of another, the events common to both are detailed 
but once, though with the proper reference. 

The beauty of the typography, and of other matters which 
constitute the mechanical perfection of a book, will, it is believed, 
require no especial notice or eulogium ; and the number, selection, 
and excellence of the engravings, (mostly designed and executed 
by the first artists of the country,) are probably unequalled by those 
of any volume of a similar character ever published in America. 



4 INTKODUCTION. 

No pains or expense have been spared to make the work altogether 
worthy of the patronage of an American community. 

This narrative commences with the origin of the Hebrews, the earli- 
est nation of which we have any authentic historical account. Events 
occurring before the Deluge can hardly be said to have a place in 
the records of national existence. They pertain rather to natural 
philosophy than to a history of human transactions. The terrible 
convulsions occurring in remote ages, and the strange and monstrous 
forms of life which then had their being, seem to indicate that the 
earth, at a certain time, was only adapted to the grosser and less 
refined existences, of whose traces geology furnishes the evidence. 

The book of Genesis (the Creation), a work carefully compiled by 
Moses, the great prophet and law-giver, from the traditions of his 
people, is perhaps the earliest reliable human record. Many nations 
have indeed cherished and handed down vague traditions of the 
creation and early history of mankind. These are mostly of a wild 
and fabulous character, though occasionally corresponding some- 
what with the Biblical relation. Even this, though of deep interest, 
is brief, partial, and meagre; containing little beyond a personal 
account of a few of the earliest dwellers upon earth, and of such 
human crimes and passions as usually characterize a rude and 
unformed state of society. 

The flood seems the great epoch from which human history takes 
its principal date. It is to be remarked that almost every nation, 
even the most uncivilized, has preserved some tradition of that 
dreadful catastrophe which submerged the mountains, and destroyed 
"all in whose nostrils was the breath of life." The polished Greek, 
with his legend of Pyrrha and Deucalion, and the Chinese, with the 
story of Fohi, evidently refer to the same universal calamity. 

The floating habitation, fraught with the destinies of mankind, is 
said to have finally rested on Ararat, a high mountain situated 
nearly on the present boundary of Persia and Turkey in Asia. From 
the eight individuals thus preserved, descended the various tribes 
and nations whose history we shall briefly examine. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

INTRODUCTION, . . 3 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 15 



THE JEWS. 

C H A PT E K I. 
Early History of the Hebrews — The Patriarchs — The Departui'e from Egypt, . . . .17 

CHAPTER II. 

The Desert— The Invasion of Palestine— The Judges, ....... 24 

CHAPTER III. 
The Kings, until the Captivity, .......... 20 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Restoration — Misfortunes of the Hebrews — The Maccabees — Gradual Ascendancy of Rome, 40 

CHAPTER V. 

The Roman Government, and the Destruction of Jerusalem, . . . . . .46 



ASSYRIA. 

CHAPTER I. 

Ancient History of Assyria, . . . . . . . , . ,57 

CHAPTER II. 

Modern Discoveries, . . , . . . . . . , . .63 



EGYPT. 

CHAPTER I. 

Ancient History of Egypt, . . . . . . . ■ . , , 67 

CHAPTER II. 

Arts, Sciences, Customs, and Mechanical Labom-s of the Ancient Egyptians, . . . ,73 

CHAPTER III. 
Modem Egypt, ... . . . . . . . , . 70 



Q CONTENTS 



PAGE 

GREECE. 

H APTE R I. 

The Early History of Greece, ........... 86 

CHAPTER II. 

The Persian Invasions, ........... 91 

CHAPTER III. 

From the Defeat of the Persians to the End of the First Peloponnesian War, . . . .94 

CHAPTERIV. 

The Second Peloponnesian War, .......... 97 

CHAPTER V. 

The Thirty Tyrants— The Expedition of the Ten Thousand— The Death of Socrates— The Theban War, 102 

CHAPTER VI. 

Philip of Macedon, . . . . . . . . . . . .107 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Conquests of Alexander, .....,..,, Ill 

CHAPTER VIII. 

From the Death of Alexander to the Roman Conquest, . . . . . , , 119 

CHAPTER IX. 

Modem Greece, ............ 123 

ROME, 

CHAPTER I. 
The Early ana Partially-fabulous History of Rome under the Kings, ..... 126 

CHAPTER II. 

The Consuls, Dictators, Tribunes, and Decemvirs — Wars with the Volscians and with Veil — Decline 

of the Roman Power, , . . , . . . , . . 130 

CHAPTER III. 

The Invasion of the Gauls, ........... I35 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Wars with the Samnites, the Latins, and Pyrrhus, ...... 137 

CHAPTER V. 

The First Punic War, . . . . . . . . . ,-, 140 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Second Punic War, ........... 143 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Wars with Macedon, and the Third Punic War, . , . . . . . ,147 



CONTENTS. 7 

CHAPTER VIII. PAGB 

The Gracchi — The War with Jugui-tha — The Civil Wars of Marius and Sylla, . . . 149 

CHAPTER IX. 

The First Triumvirate, and the Wars of Pompey and Csesar, ...... 153 

CHAPTER X. 
The Second Triumvirate, ........... 159 

CHAPTERXI. 

The Emperors Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, ...... 163 

CHAPTER XII. 

The Emperors Nero, Galba, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, and Nerva, . . 167 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Trajan, Adrian, Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, Pertinax, Didius Severus, Caracalla, Macri- 

nus, HeUogabalus, Alexander, Maximin, Gordian, Philip, and Decius, . . . 171 

CHAPTERXIV. 
Gallus, Valerian, Galienus, Flavius Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Carus, Dioclesian, Constantius 

and Galerius, and Constantine — Removal of the Seat of Empire to Byzantium, . . 177 

CHAPTER XV. 

Decline and Dissolution of the Empire, ......... 180 



PERSIA. 

CHAPTER I. 

History of Persia before the Christian Era, ........ 183 

CHAPTER II. 

From the Christian Era to the Conquest by Zinghis Khan, ...... 193 

CHAPTER III. 

From the Invasion of Persia by Zinghis Khan to the Present Time, ...... 201 



INDIA. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Ancient and Classic History of India, . . . . . . . , .209 

CHAPTER II. 

The Early Mahometan Invaders and Conquerors of India— The Afghan Dynasty— Timur the Tartar, 214 

CHAPTER III. 
The Mogul Dynasty, Baber, Akbar, Jehanghu-e, Aurengzebe— Decline of the Imperial Power, . 219 

CHAPTERIV. 

Early European Discoveries and Conquests— Expeditions of the Portuguese and Dutch, . . 227 



8 CONTENTS. 




CHAPTER V . PAOB 


The Early English Expeditions and Settlements— The East India Company— Contests with the French 


233 


CHAPTER VI. 




The British Conquests in Bengal— The Wars with Hyder Ali and with the French, . 


239 


CHAPTERVII. 




The Wai-s with Tippoo Saib, and the Conquest of Mysoi-e, . . . 


248 


CHAPTER VIII. 




The Mahratta Wai-— Conquest of Central India, . . . • . . . 


252 


CHAPTER IX. 




The Pindaree War, and the Final Overthrow of the Mahrattas, . . . 


256 


CHAPTER X. 




The Religion, Customs, Industry, and Character of the Hindoos, . . . . . 


260 


CHIWA. 




CIIAPTERI. 




Native History of the Chinese, .......... 


267 


CHAPTERII. 




Characteristics of the Inhabitants of China, ........ 


275 


THE MAHOMETANS. 




CHAPTER I. 




The Inhabitants of Arabia— Their Ancient Government and Religion, . . . 


285 


CHAPTER II. 




The Early Life of Mahomet— His Religious Pretensions, ...... 


287 


CHAPTER I TI. 




The Life of Mahomet, from the Promulgation of his Doctrines until his "Hegtra," or Flight to Medina, 291 | 


CHAPTER IV. 




From the" Hegira" to the Capture of Mecca, ........ 


294 


CHAPTERV. 




From the Capture of Mecca till the Death of Mahomet, . . . 


30O 


CHAPTERVI. 




The Caliphat of Abu Beker— The Wars in Syria— The Capture of Damascus, and the Defeat of the 




Imperial Forces ........... 


305 


CHAPTER VII. 




The Caliphat of Omar— The Capture of Emessa, Baalbec, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Cjesarea— Pinal 




Conquest of Syria, ...... . > • • 


310 



CONTENTS. 9 

CHAPTEK VIII. PAGE 

The Caliphat of Omai-, contiuued— Conquest of Egypt and of Persia— Death of Omar, • . 316 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Caliphat of Othman— The Invasion of Northern Africa— Naval Success of the Moslems, . 322 

CHAPTER X. 

The Caliphat of AU— The Rebellion of Moawyah— Death of Ali — Caliphat of his son Hassan, . 325 

CHAPTER XI. 
The Syrian CaUphat— Reign of Moawyah— The Siege of Constantinople — Wars in Africa— The Reign 

ofYezid, . .328 

CHAPTER XII. 
The Rival Caliphs of Damascus and Mecca — Triumph of Abd'Almalec, .... 332 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Revival of the Spirit of Conquest— The Reign of Waled— Final Subjugation of Northern Africa, 33C 

CHAPTERXIV. 

The Conquest of Spain, and the Invasion of France, ....... 339 

CHAPTER XV. 
The Division of the Caliphat— The Dynasties of Spain, Africa, and Bagdad — Fm-ther Conquests — 

Decline of the Saracenic Power, ......... 341 

CHAPTER XVI. 
The Tai-tar Conquests and Invasions, ......... 344 

CHAPTER XVII. 

The Tmks— The Seljukian Dynasty, 347 

CHAPTERXVIII. 

The Turks— The Dynasty of Othman — The Ottoman or Present Tm-kish Power, . . , 350 



SPAIN. 

CHAPTER I. 

Ancient History of Spain — The Carthagenians, Romans, and Goths — The Saracen Conquest, . 355 

CHAPTER II. 

The Formation of New Christian States: Asturias, Navarre, Leon, Castile, and Arragon — Continued 

Contests with the Moors — Union of Leon and Castile, ..... 358 

CHAPTER III. 
From the Union of Leon and Castile to that of Castile and Arragon, under Ferdinand and Isabella, 364 

CHAPTER IV. 

Ferdinand and Isabella— Subjugation of the Moors— Charles 1. The Emperor Charles V.), . 366 

CHAPTERV. 

From the Abdication of Charles I. to the Death of Charles U., the last Monarch of the Austrian Line, 371 



10 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTERVI.. PAQE 

Tlie House of Bourbon, rnitil the French Revolution, ....... 374 

CHAPTER VII. 

Charles IV. — Ascendancy of France — Abdication of the King, . . . . . . 378 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Dethronement of the Bourbons, and, Accession of Joseph Bonaparte — Resistance of the Spaniards, 3S2 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Peninsular War, . . . . . . . . . . . i 385 

CHAPTER X. 

Expulsion of the French, and Restoration of the Bourbons, ...... 390 



GERMANY. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Ancient Germans— The Empire of the West— The Elective Empire, .... 394 

CHAPTERII. 

The Francoman Emperors— CJontests with the Papacy ....... 397 

CHAPTER III. 
The Empire until .the Reformation, .......... 401 

CHAPTERIV, 

The Reformation — Martin Luther — The Indulgences, &c., ...... 405 

CHAPTER V. 

The Reformation Continued— The " Theses " of Luther— Contests with Rome— The Diet at Worms, 409 

CHAPTER VI. 

Spread of the Reformation — ^The Bible— The Peasant- War — Persecutions, .... 415 

CHAPTERVII. 

ReUgious Disputes— The Thirty Years' War, . . . . '. . . .419 



RUSSIA. 

CHAPTER I. 

Early History of Russia— The Tartars— Ascendancy of the Muscovite Dynasty— Ivan the Great, 425 

CHAPTERII. 
Ivan the Terrible — Foreign Wars — Accessiom of the Hoase of Romanoff, .... 429 

CHAPTER III. 

Peter the Great— Peiils of his Youth— his Efforts for Refonn— Cruelties— Travels in Europe — War 

With Charles XII. of Sweden, 432 



CONTENTS. 



11 



CHAPTERIV. PAGE 

Peter the Great, continued— Disastrous War with the Turks — Fresh Conqueste and Improvements- 
Death of his son Alexis — Expedition to the Caspian Sea — Death of Peter, . . . 437 

CHAPTER V. 
Catharine I., Peter IL, Anna, Ivan, Elizabeth, and Peter III., ...... 442 

CHAPTER VI. 

Cathiii-ine II. and Paul, . ... . . ... . . 445 

CHAPTER VII. 

Alexander and Nicholas, ........... 447 



FRANCE, 

CHAPTER I. 

The Early Inhabitants of France — The Romans; The Franks — The Merovingian and Carlovingian 

Dynasties, ........... 451 

CHAPTER II. 

The House of Capet, . . . . . . . . . . . 455 

CHAPTER III. 
The House of Valois, . . . . . . , . . . .462 

CHAPTERIV. 
The House of Valois, continued, • . . . . . . . . . 470 

CHAPTER V. 

The House of Bourbon— Henry IV. and Louis XIII., ...,,,. 477 

CHAPTERVI. 

The House of Bourbon— Louis XIV. and Louis XV., . . , • . . . , 481 

CHAPTER VII. 

The House of Bourbon, continued — Louis XVI. and the Revolution, .... 493 

CHAPTER VIII. 
The Convention, and the Reign of Terror, ......... 502 

CHAPTERIX. 

The Convention, and the Directory, . . . . , . , . . 506 

CHAPTER X. 

The Consulate, .514 

CH APTER Xr. 

The Empire, ........:.. 518 

CHAPTER XII. 

The Decline and Fall of the Empire, ......... 527 



12 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER X I.I I. PAQB 

The Restoration of the Bourbous, and the "Hundred Days" of Napoleon, .... 535 

CHAPTERXIV. 

The Second Restoration of the Bourbons, and their Expulsion — Louis Philippe, and his Expulsion — 

The Republic, 541 

THE RULERS OF FRANCE, 

From B. C. 60 to the Present Time, ......... 547 



EJV6LAJVD. 

CHAPTER I. 

Britain under the Romans, ........... 549 

CHAPTER II. 

The Saxon Invasions and the Heptarchy, . . . , . . . . 551 

CHAPTER III. 
The Anglo-Saxon Kings, . . . . . . . . ... 551 

CHAPTER IT. 

The Danish Kings, and the Last of the Saxons, . . . . . . . . 558 

CHAPTERV. 

William I., William II., and Henry I., ......... 5C3 

CHAPTERVI. 

Stephen and Henry 11., .... . ..... 567 

CHAPTER VII. 

Richard I., John, and Henry HI., ....... . . 572 

CHAPTERVIII. 

Edward I., Edward II., and Edward III., ........ 577 

CHAPTER IX. 

Richard H. and Henry rv., .......... 585 

CHAPTER X. 

Henry V. and Henry VI., ........ ... 591 

CHAPTER XI. 

Edward IV., Edward V., and Richard lU., ......... 593 

CHAPTER XII. 

Henry VII., C04 

CHAPTERXIII. 

Henry Vni., .608 



CONTENTS. -JO 

CHAPTERXIV. PAGE 

Edward VI. and Maiy, •••••..,. 618 

CHAPTER XV. 

Elizabeth, •■••...,,, 62R 

CHAPTER XVI. 
•f'""^*!-' 643 

CHAPTER XVIX. 

Charles I., . . . . . . . ^^ 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

The Commonwealth, •......., 66'i 

CHAPTER XIX. 

The Protectorate, &c., , . /.<,„ 

CHAPTER XX. 

Charles II., .... .-,. 

•••••••. 070 

CHAPTERXXI. 

'^^"'««"-' 684 

CHAPTER XXII. 

William m. and Mary U., 

CHAPTER XXIII. 
"^■^^ 694 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

George I. and George II., ... »^ 

• • , • • • • . 639 

CHAPTER XXV. 

George III., ... 

' 704 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

George IV., WUUam IV., and Victoria, . . . . 



716 



THE RULERS OF ENGLAND, 

From B. C. 55 to the Present Time, 



Hi CONTENTS. 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY, 

ITALY, 

THE NETHERLANDS, - 
DENMARK, - - - - • 
PORTUGAL, . - - - 
SWITZERLAND, 



lESSER EUROPEAN NATIONS. fage 

721 



724 
729 
731 
733 
735 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



IN ALL CASES WHERE THE NAME OF THE DRAFTSMAN IS NOT 

GIVEN, THE ENGRAVINGS ARE FROM CELEBRATED FRENCH 

AND ENGLISH ARTISTS; MOSTLY VERNET, OF FRANCE, 

AND GILBERT, OF ENGLAND. 



SUBJECTS. 

TITLE-PAGE, 

Joseph Sold by his Brethren, 

Moses and Aaron before Pharaoh, 

View of the Valley of the Jordan, 

Babylonian Captivity, 

Destruction of Jerusalem, 

The Funeral Pyre of Sardanapalus, 

Assyrian Monarch returning from Battle, 

Judgment of the Dead, 

The Battle of Aboukir, 

The Battle of the Pyramids, 

Mai's' Hill and the Acropolis, at Athens, 

Xerxes viewing the Sea-Fight at Salamis, 

The Death of Socrates, 

The Mother of Corlolanus, 

The Death of Virginia, 

Obsequies of Pompey, 

The Fortress of Gingee, 

India Costumes, 

Hyder AH, 

Palace of the British Resident at Hyderabad, 

Mausoleum of the Sovereigns of Mysore, 

The Great WaU of China, 

The Cultivation and Preparation of Tea, 

The Flight of Mahomet, 

The " Battle of the Bridge," at the River Euphrates, 

Spanish Costumes, 

Charles I. of Spain resigning the Crown, 

The Rock of Gibraltar, 

The Prison of the Inquisition at Cordova, 

Military Costume of the Twelfth Centuiy, 

Military Costume of the Thirteenth Century, 



RA.WN BY 


ENGBAVED BT 


PAGK 


Billings 


Clark 


1 


Billings 


Dodd 


21 


Darley 


O'Brien 


23 


Wallin 


Bobbett & Edmonds 


2G 


Darley 


O'Brien 


39 


Darley 


Baker 


53 


Darley 


Richardson 


60 




Clark 


, 64 


Darley 


Richardson 


75 




Dodd 


. 80 




Dodd 


, 81 


Doepler 


Bobbett & Edmonds 


86 


Dai'ley 


Herrick 


93 


Darley 


Clark 


-104 


Billings 


Clark 


.132 


Darley 


Herrick 


^ 134 


Darley 


Richardson 


157 




Crosby 


238 




Crosby 


243 




Crosby 


243 




Clark 


. 252 




Clark 


253 


Wade 


O'Brien 


269 


Wade 


Clark 


. 2d4 


Darley 


Bobbett & Edmonds 


294 


Dai-ley 


Bobbett &. Edmonds 


319 




Clark 


1 368 


Darley 


Bobbett & Edmonds 


370 




Thompson 


375 


Wade 


O'Brien 


388 




Crosby 


400 




Crosby 


. 400 



16 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS 






StTBJBCTS. 


DRAWN 3T 


ENGRAVED BT 


PAGE 


Martin Luther, 


Wallin 


Bobbett & Edmonds 


408 ■ 


Austrian Peasant, 




Clark 


417 


German Peasant, 




Clark 


417 


Isabel of Bavaria, 




Clark 


417 


Austrian Lady of Rank, 




Clark 


417 


Fredericlc the Great, 


Wallin 


Bobbett & Edmonds 


422 


Bronze Statue of Peter the Great, 




Clark 


435 


The Retreat from Russia, 




Dodd 


445 


Nicholas I., Emperor of Russia, 


Wallin 


Bobbett & Edmonds 


447 - 


Peter the Hermit, 


Darley 


O'Brien 


456 


Departui-e of the First Cmsade, 


Darley 


O'Brien 


457 


French Costumes, 




Clark 


476 


The Contested Causeway at the Battle of Areola, 


Darley 


Richardson 


510 - 


The Battle of the Pyramids, 




Dodd 


5jl 


Napoleon Bonapai'te, 




Clark 


518 


Marshal Soult, 




Clark 


519 


Marshal Lannes, 




Clark 


526 


Napoleon Crowning the Empress Josephine, 




Clark 


528 • 


The Private Supper at Dantzic, 




Clmk 


528 


Marshal Ney, 




Clark 


530 


An Officer of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon, 




Clark 


538 


Disinterment of the Remains of Napoleon, 




Dodd 


540 ' 


The Funeral Car of Napoleon, 




Thompson 


541 


A Ban-icade, as attaclted and defended, at Paris, 


Darley 


Herrick 


546 


A Druid and Dniidess, 




Crosby 


552 . 


A Druidical Altar or Monument, 




Crosby 


552 . 


A British Wai-rior of the Southern Tribes, 




Crosby 


553 


A Knight Templar, in Full Armoxir, 




Crosby 


553 


English, Scotch, and Irish Costumes, 




Clark 


568 


The Murder of Thomas a Beclcet, 


Dai-ley 


O'Brien 


570 


Garter King-at-Arms, Chief Herald of England, 




Crosby 


585 - 


Death of Richard HI., 


Darley 


Herrick 


603 -' 


Henry VIIL, 




Thompson 


609 


Elizabeth, Queen of England, 




Thompson 


629 


Charles I., 




Clark 


649 


OUver Cromwell, 


Wallin 


Bobbett & Edmonds 


659 


Charge of Cromwell at Worcester, 


Darley 


Herrick 


667 


Charles II., 




Clark 


675 


Charles Edward (called the Pretender), 




Clark 


702 


The Duke of Wellington, 




Thompson 


714 


Charge of the Enniskillen Dragoons at Waterloo, 




Clark 


715 


Victoria, 




Clark 


71G 


Danish Costumes, 




Clark 


721 


Jenny Lind, 


WaUin 


Bobbett & Edmonds 


722 


Bemadotte, 




Clark 


723 


Italian Costume, 




Clark 


725 


Murat, 




Clark 


727 



THE JEWS. 



EAELT HISTOEY OF THE HEBREWS. THE PATEIARCHS. — THE 

DEPARTUKE FROM EGYPT. 

The Hstorj of tlie Chosen People may be considered as com- 
mencing witli the preservation of Noah, although their laws and 
ceremonies were not prescribed until a later period. The Deluge 
having subsided, the Ark rested on Mount Ararat, and the patriarch 
offered a sacrifice to the Lord, in gratitude for his preservation. It 
is recorded that he survived for three hundred and fifty years after 
the flood, and died at the advanced age of nine hundred and fifty. 

His sons were Shem, Ham, and Japheth; "and of them was the 
whole earth overspread." It is told of the descendants of Japheth 
that by them "were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands." 
From Ham descended Nirnrod, the mighty- hunter, and the founder 
of Babylon. Asshur, a son of Shem, also founded Nineveh, after- 
wards united to Babylon, and forming the Assyrian empire. No 
especial record of events is given until we arrive at Abram, the 
ninth in descent from Shem, and the venerable father of the 
Hebrew race. 

His name is still held in reverence by nearly all the oriental races, 
and many accounts of his life and teachings are found in their 
legends. Some of these have been adopted in the Koran; but the 
only authentic record is to be found in the Book of Genesis, where we 
are informed that he was the son of Terah, and was married to 
Sarai, his half-sister. Such unions were not uncommon in that 
primitive age. Their dwelling-place was Ur, a region in the north- 
east of Chaldea, whence they migrated to Carrhan, a country farther 
2 



18 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

west. From this place, Abram, with his nephew Lot, and the rest 
of his numerous household, following a divine intimation, set forth 
to found a new race in other lands. Crossing the Euphrates, he 
arrived, after some delays, in Palestine, and pitched his tent in 
Sichem, between the mountains Ebal and Gerizim. He afterwards 
dwelt north of Jericho, and descending southward in quest of 
pastures, was compelled by famine to seek the land of Egypt — a 
country whose fertility seems to have made it a frequent refuge for 
the destitute. 

Sarai, who passed as his sister, was taken by the king, who, on 
discovering his mistake, returned her to Abram, and with her sent 
many gifts of a pastoral nature — "sheep and oxen, and he asses, 
and men-servants and maid-servants, and she asses and camels." 
Eeturning to Canaan with an increased household and possessions, 
Abram and Lot agreed upon a separation, and the latter moved 
eastward into the fertile valley of the Jordan. 

Abram here received a renewed promise that his posterity should 
be a gTcat and chosen nation, possessing all the land of Palestine. 
Again migrating, the tribe encamped in the southern plain of Mamre. 

Soon after, a great contest occurred in the neighbourhood of the 
Jordan, where in the vale of Siddim, there were joined in battle 
"four kings with five." Lot, a resident in Sodom, one of the cap- 
tured cities, was carried away a prisoner. On receiving the intelli- 
gence, Abram, with three hundred and eighteen of his own clan, 
and with some assistance from the neighbouring tribes, pursued the 
enemy near the sources of Jordan. Falling on them by night, he 
rescued Lot and the other prisoners, and recovered the booty, of 
which he refused to receive any share. One-tenth, however, was 
consecrated as a divine offering, 

Abram still remained childless, but was cheered by a prophetical 
voice, proclaiming that his descendants should be numerous as the 
stars on which he was gazing. The destiny of his race Avas fore- 
told, and a miraculous appearance confirmed his faith. Shortly 
afterwards, Sarai gave to him Hagar, her Egyptian slave, who bore 
him a son named Ishmael. Many years afterwards, when both 
Abram and his wife were advanced in years, a new revelation 
announced that he should have a legitimate offspring by Sarai. 
The ancient and widely-adopted rite of circumcision was also at 
this time prescribed, and he was commanded to assume the reverend 
name of Abraham, signifying "the father of a multitude." 



THE JEWS. 19 

At this time occurred the destruction of tlie cities of the plain, 
from which Lot and his family were preserved. The patriarch fled 
to Zoar, and thence to the mountains, where, overcome with wine, 
he became, by an incestuous intercourse with his two daughters, the 
parent of the famous tribes of Ammon and Moab. 

The son long promised to Abraham now was born, and named 
Isaac. At the jealous instigation of Sarai, Hagar and her son, 
Ishmael, now fourteen years old, were sent into the wilderness. The 
account of their fortunes, in Scripture, is most touching and beautiful. 
Preserved from death by the discovery of a well of water, they 
survived, and Ishmael became the father of those wandering tribes 
of Arabs who inherit the character of their progenitor, "the wild 
man, whose hand is against every man, and every man's hand 
against him." 

Once more to test his obedience, the patriarch was commanded to 
sacrifice his beloved son, the hope of his house, and the inheritor of 
his divine destiny. He consented, and made preparation: a victim 
was miraculously provided ; and the promise was renewed that his 
seed should be as numerous as the stars of heaven and the sands on 
the sea-shore. 

At the death of Sarai, we find Abraham purchasing a place of 
burial, 

* * * «< jyiachpelah's honoured cave, 
Where Jacob and where Leah lie ;'' 

afterwards destined to contain the last remains of others memorable 
in Sacred Writ. 

A wife is next sought for Isaac, not from the neighbouring tribes, 
but from the relations of Abraham. A servant is despatched to 
the ancient settlement, who meets at the well the beautiful Eebekah, 
a grand-niece of the patriarch. She assists him in watering the 
camels, and is finally conducted back a bride. 

By Keturah, another wife, Abraham had many children, though 
Isaac continued his sole heir. At length, fall of years, he died, and 
was buried by Ishmael and Isaac in Machpelah. 

Isaac, who pursued the peaceful occupation of a husbandman, 
was father to Esau and Jacob — ^the one a hunter, rough in appear- 
ance, brave and generous — the other a herdsman, peaceful, crafty, 
and treacherous. By means of artifice, the latter secured to himself 
the birthright and the blessing destined for Esau ; but, fearing his 



20 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

revenge, departed for tlie ancient dwelling-place of tlieir tribe in 
Mesopotamia. After receiving a divine instruction, he proceeded to 
tlie home of his ancestors, and admired his cousin Eachel, whom, 
according to the oriental and primitive manners of the daj, he found 
driving her father's flocks to water at the well. 

For her, and for her sister Leah, he served their father fourteen 
years, and finally departed secretly, taking with him his wives, his 
property, and the sacred utensils of his father-in-law, Laban. Before 
venturing to approach the home of his father, he deprecated the 
resentment of Esau (now the head of a powerful tribe) by sub- 
mission and by presents. These were not needed; for the rough 
forester, generous and forgiving, "ran to meet him, and embraced 
him, and fell on his neck, and kissed him, and they wept." 

By this time the family of Jacob appears to have formed the 
commencement of a nation; for we find Simeon and Levi, two of 
his sons, to avenge the seduction of their sister Dinah, falling upon 
the city of Shechem, and putting the inhabitants (enfeebled by a 
late circumcision) to the sword. 

The promise of inheritance was again renewed to Jacob, and he 
erected at Luz an altar, and called the place Beth-el, the House of 
God. Thence he removed to Bethlehem, the birth-place of Christ, 
where Eachel died, having given birth to Ben-oni, the "child of her 
sorrow," but called by his father, Benjamin, "the son of his right 
hand." At last he rejoined his father Isaac, in the plain of Mamre. 
Here the old man died, and was buried by Esau and Jacob, who 
met in peace, as the rivals Ishmael and Isaac had done before at the 
burial of Abraham. 

From this time the branches of the family constituted distinct 
nations. Esau and his descendants, the Edomites, dwelt about Mount 
Seir, and Jacob continued to remain in the land of Canaan. 

In the history of these early races we find only the records of a 
wandering and pastoral life. They migrate, with their camels and 
asses, wherever pasture or a supply of food invites them. Some 
traffic seems to have existed with Egypt, "tbe granary of nations," 
and gold and silver had been introduced. 

The soil, where cultivated, appears to have been of a virgin 
richness, returning, as in the tillage of Isaac, "a hundred for one." 
The supreme authority was vested in the patriarch or head of the 
tribe, who could transfer it, with the right of primogeniture, to any 
of his sons whom he preferred. The domestic customs and the ties 



THE JEWS. 



21 



of marriage seem to have been mucli as they are at the present day 
among the ruder nations of the East, 

From Jacob, who, by divine command, assumed the name of 
Israel, sprang twelve sons, each the father of a separate tribe. From 
Leah were born the four elder, Eeuben, Simeon, Leyi, and Judah ; 
from Bilhah, Rachel's handmaid, Dan and Naphtali; from Zilpah, 
Leah's servant. Gad and Asher. Leah again bore Issachar and 
Zebulun, with a daughter, Dinah. Finally, Rachel became the 
mother of Joseph and Benjamin. 

Joseph, a beautiful and intelligent youth, had ever held the first 
place in the affections of his father. This excited the jealousy of his 
brethren, who determined, while tending their flocks, to put him to 
death. At the remonstrance of Reuben, they spared his life, and 
sold him as a slave to a caravan of Arabian traders passing into 
Egypt, and laden with spicery, myrrh, and balm. Having been 
bought by Potiphar, a chief ofl&cer of the court, he was soon found 
worthy, by his prudence and integrity, of the charge of his master's 
entire household. Attracted by his beauty, the wife of his master 
made advances, which being repelled, she caused him by a false 
complaint to be cast into prison. Having there distinguished him- 
self by his skill in the interpretation of dreams, he was summoned 
by Pharaoh to expound to him a perplexing vision. 

The king had dreamed of " seven well-favoured and fat kine," 
devoured by as many "ill-favoured and lean," and of seven ripe 
and goodly ears of corn devoured by the same number that were 
thin and withered. This the prisoner explained to signify that 
seven fruitful and abundant years should be followed by seven of 
barrenness and famine. He advised in what manner to meet the 
calamity ; and, being appointed vizier or prime minister over the 
land, exacted annually a fifth of all the produce, and caused it to be 
stored in the royal granaries. The king, to connect this talented 
stranger more nearly with his own people, gave to him in marriage 
Asenath, daughter of the priest of the sun in Heliopolis. 

The years of plenty having passed away, those of famine suc- 
ceeded; and were felt not only in Egypt, but in the adjacent regions. 
In the second year, the sons of Jacob came thither, sent by their 
father to purchase corn. The scriptural account of the various 
meetings of Joseph and his brothers, is too long and too beautiful 
to be compressed within the limits of this work. 

"And there stood no man near him, while Joseph made himself 



22 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

known unto liis brethren; and lie wept aloud, and the Egjj)tians 
and the house of Pharaoh heard. And Joseph said unto his breth- 
ren, ' Come near to me, I pray you.' And they came near. And 
he said, 'I am Joseph; doth my father yet livef^^ — He forgave them, 
afforded them every relief and assistance, and sent for his father and 
all his household. The aged patriarch could not at first believe the 
wonderful account. Convinced at last, he said, "It is enough; 
Joseph my son is yet alive ; I will go and see him before I die." — 
Thus all the direct descendants of Abraham, seventy in number, 
migrated to Egypt, and were allotted, as their residence, the fertile 
land of Goshen. 

During this time, Joseph, by supporting the people, gradually 
acquired, as the property of the crown, the money, stock, and lands 
of all the inhabitants, except the priests, who were supported 
throughout at the public expense. 

After residing in Egypt seventeen years, Jacob died, at the good 
old age of one hundred and forty-seven. In his last moments, he 
uttered many remarkable prophecies of the future fate of his nation, 
gave his last blessing to Joseph, and enjoined that he should be 
buried at Machpelah, in the sepulchre of his father. 

Meanwhile, the Israelites had increased remarkably in number, 
and enjoyed peace and prosperity. At the age of one hundred and 
ten years, their great leader Joseph died, having directed that his 
body should be embalmed, and borne to the family-tomb in Canaan. 

At this period ends the Book of Genesis, (the creation,) the earli- 
est and sublimest record of human events. Our next source of 
information is Exodus, (the going forth,) in which the history of the 
Israelites is continued. 

They remained in Egypt, according to some authorities, for a 
period of two hundred and fifteen years ; according to others, four 
hundred and fifty. During this time, thej^ gradually increased into 
a large and distinct nation, and appear to have been well treated by 
the original inhabitants. 

At last, "there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not 
Joseph." Forgetful of their claim to hospitality and protection, he 
sought to diminish the number of the foreign race by employing 
them in severe and exhausting labours. This plan failing, he com- 
manded, Herod-like, that all the male infants should be destroyed at 
their birth. A Hebrew woman exposed her child in a cradle of 
rushes on the bank of the river. Being discovered and adopted by 




And aftei-wa.rd Moses and Aaron went in, and told Pharaoh, Thus saith the Loi-d 
God of Israel, Let my people go, that they may hold a feast unto me in the wildei'- 
ness. And Pharaoh said. Who is the Lord, that I should ohey his voice to let 
Israel go ? I know not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go. And they said, The 
God of the Hebrews hath met with us: let us go, we pray thee, three days' jour- 
ney into the desert, and sacrifice unto the Lord our God, lest he fall upon us Avith 
pestilence, or with the sword. And the king of Egypt said unto them. Wherefore 
do ye, Moses and Aaron, let the people from their works ? get you unto your bur 
dens And Pharaoh said, Behold, the people of the land now are many, and ye 
make them rest from their burdens. And Pharaoh commanded the same d:iy the 
taskmasters of the people, and their ofliioers, saying. Ye shall no more give the 
people straw to make brick, as heretofore : let them go and gather straw for them- 
selves. And the tale of the bricks, "which they did make heretofore, ye shall lay 
upon them ; ye shall not diminish aught thereof : for they be idle ; therefore they 
cry, saying. Let us go and sacrifice to our God. Let there more work be laid 
upon the men, that they may labour therein : a.nd let them not regard vain words. 
And the taskmasters of the people went out, and their ofiicers, and they spake to 
the people, saying. Thus saith Pharaoh, I will not give you straw. Go ye, get 
you straw Avhere you can find it, yet not aught of your work: shall be diminished. 
So the people were scattered abroad throughout all the land of Egypt, to gather 
stubble instead of straw. And the taskmasters hasted them, s.'iying. Fulfil your 
works, TOUR daily tasks, as when there w^as straw. And the ofiicers of the chil- 
dren of Israel, which Pharaoh's taskmasters had set over them, "were beaten, 
AND demanded, Wherefore have ye not fulfilled your task in making bi-ick liotln 
yesterday and Lr-day, as heretofore ' 



THE JEWS. 23 

tlie king's daughter, he received the name of Moses, an Egyptian 
word signifying " drawn from the water." Educated in the court of 
Pliaraoh, he became accomplished in all the learning and science of 
the Egyptians. Sympathizing with his oppressed nation, he killed 
a man, probably one of the task-masters, who was beating and ill- 
treating one of his people. In alarm for the consequences, he fled 
to Midian, and there for forty years pursued the humble occupation 
of a shepherd. 

One day he drove his flock into the solitudes near Mount Horeb, 
and received a divine command, enforced by miracles, to attempt the 
deliverance of his people from their slavery. His brother Aaron, a 
man of eloquence, was associated in the task. Proceeding to the 
throne of Pharaoh, they petitioned a brief respite from their labours, 
to offer sacrifice to the Lord. The prayer was rejected, and fresh 
burdens were imposed upon the unhappy bondsmen. Unconvinced 
by miraculous tokens, the king hardened his heart, and incurred for 
himself and his people awful calamities. The rivers were turned 
into blood; myriads of frogs swarmed over the land, and filled the 
royal palace ; the dust was changed to vermin, and swarms of flies 
infested the inhabitants. A destructive pestilence pervaded the 
flocks ; a loathsome disease attacked humanity, and dreadful storms 
of rain, hail and thunder, before unknown in Egypt, afflicted the 
land. The king's obstinacy began to relent, and he promised to let 
the people go. Eetracting his agreement, new terrors ensued. 
Swarms of locusts, ("such as had never been seen before, nor should 
be again,") a palpable darkness for three days, and finally the mys- 
terious destruction in a single night of stll the first-born in Egypt, 
overcame the fatal obstinacy of the king. "Knowest thou not yet 
that Egypt is destroyed?" On the occasion of the last judgment, 
the passover was instituted, in memory of the blood of the victims 
sprinkled on the door-posts, by which the avenging angel might 
pass over the chosen people. 

* * " Thus with ten wounds, 

The river-dragon, tamed, at last submits 
To let his sojourners depart; and oft 
Humbles his stubborn heart." 

The Hebrews departed, in a mighty caravan, encumbered with 
their helpless families, cattle, and all their household goods. Carry- 
ing the bones of their great ancestor, Joseph, they advanced into the 



24 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

desert, and finally encamped by tlie Eed Sea. The haughty king, 
renewing the hardness of his heart, pursued. Hope almost deserted 
them, when a furious wind from the east began to blow — the dry 
bed of the sea appeared, and about nightfall they commenced defil- 
ing through the miraculous path. The chariots and horsemen of 
the Egyptians followed in full pursuit, and while in mid passage, the 
returning sea came in like an army, and they were swallowed up : 

* * * * "Gone — 

Gone with the refluent wave into the deep, 
A prince witli half his people." 

The tradition of this wonderf td event is still preserved among the 
wild inhabitants of these shores ; and the wandering Arab imagines 
that, among the breakers in a certain bay, he can still distinguish 
cries and wailings uttered by the ghosts of Pharaoh's army. 



THE DESEET. — THE INVASION OP PALESTINE. — THE JUDGES. 

Aftee this signal interposition in their behalf, the Israelites 
marched three days through the wilderness of Shur. Having drank 
of the bitter waters of Marah, they reposed a month in Elim, where 
they found twelve wells of water, and three score and ten palm- 
trees. In danger of famine, they were relieved by flocks of quails 
and by a sweet substance called manna, . distilled from certain 
shrubs in the desert. 

They arrived at last before that awful mountain which had 
already witnessed the first interview of Moses with the Divine 
Being, Water was miraculously supplied to them, and the Amalek- 
ites, who attacked the camp, were discomfited, and became the 
perpetual enemies of Israel. 

Here also Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, joined him, and, by 
his advice, a system of government and jurisprudence was adopted. 



THE JEWS. 25 

And here, amid the savage rocks and precipices of Sinai, slirouded 
by thick darkness and tempest, was delivered to Moses that remark- 
able code of laws and ceremonies so long the giiide of the Jewish 
race. Though apparently severe and arbitrary in some points, they 
were probably well adapted for the government of a rude, semi- 
civilized race. They enforced strongly the worship of one God, 
innocence from the more obvious crimes, chastity, cleanliness, rever- 
ence to age, and a great number of minor obligations, the intent of 
which, at this time, is not very clear to us. 

During the absence of their chief, the people, in despair of ever 
seeing him again, recommenced their idolatry; and on his return, 
the tribe of Levi, at his command, slew three thousand of them, 
without regard to friendship or relationship. 

A tabernacle was next erected, splendid in workmanship and 
materials, and Aaron and his sons were appointed as heads of the 
priesthood. On the completion of the edifice, the pillar of cloud 
by day and of flame by night, which had hitherto guided the people, 
came and rested upon it. 

At length, a year after the departure from Egypt, the twelve tribes 
left their encampment, and marched northward in military array, 
singing, "Arise, O Lord, and let thine enemies be scattered!" On 
the way, to strengthen the authority of their chief, a council of 
seventy elders was appointed — the origin, according to the Jews, of 
their famous Sanhedrim. 

Arriving, at last, at Kadesh Barnea, on the southern frontier of 
the Promised Land, they sent a spy from each tribe to reconnoitre 
the country. These, returning, dwelt oh the richness of the soil 
and the beauty of the fruits, of which they brought specimens; 
but alarmed the people with a description of the inhabitants. " And 
there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak; and we were in our 
own sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their sight." 

"Back to Egypt!" was the universal exclamation; and turning 
their faces from the Land of Promise, they commenced fulfilling 
their allotted destiny — to wander for forty years in the desert. For 
thirty-eight of these, we know little except the names of the stations 
where they halted, mostly near Mount Sinai. It is thought probable 
by some, that during this period Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, 
overrun a great part of the world, and that the Israelites, in this 
inaccessible retreat, escaped the vengeance of their former masters. 

At last, when the old generation had passed away, and a new race 



26 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

had sprung up, invigorated bj the free air of tlie desert, the race of 
invaders once more marched to Kadesh. Fearing to engage at first 
with the sons of Anak, the Philistines and the Jebusites, they sought 
from the Edomites a passage over Mount Seir, that they might com- 
pass the Dead Sea, and crossing the Jordan, fall upon the richest 
and least protected region of the land. This being refused them, 
they retraced their steps to the Red Sea, and turned northward 
through Moab. On their way, Aaron died, and was buried on Hor, 
a rocky mountain, where his tomb is shown to this day. 

Still marching east of the Dead Sea, they overcame the Amorites, 
who had refused them passage, and slew Og, the gigantic king of 
Bashan. The Moabites in alarm sent for aid to Midian, a friendly 
power, describing the number and ferocity of their invaders, in the 
expressive language of the East: "They shall lick up all that is 
round about us, as the ox licketh up the grass." Moreover, to 
countervail the unseen and mysterious protection which evidently 
shielded the Israelites, Balak, king of Moab, sent for Balaam, a 
renowned prophet of the East, that by his imprecations the invad- 
ing legions might be disheartened and confounded. The divine 
intuition of the holy man acquainted him with the true destiny of 
events, and his curses were converted into blessings and favourable 
auguries to the enemy. 

The victorious army, still advancing, was overladen with booty, 
and half-satiated with slaughter. The rich meadows of Bashan and 
Gilead, east of the Jordan, were, at their request, allotted to the 
tribes of Reuben and Gad, who at once commenced a settlement. 

And now the end of the great Law-Giver drew near. He had 
lived an hundred and twenty years, yet "his eye was not dim, 
nor his natural force abated." His last work was the revision 
and compilation of those numerous edicts which he had from time 
to time promulgated. His last words to the people were an exhort- 
ation and a prophecy, unsurpassed for sublimity of expression, 
and fearfully realized in the event. 

He named Joshua as his successor, and as death drew near to 
him, ascended Mount Nebo, from whose loftiest eminence, Pisgah, 
he surveyed, for the first and last time, that beautiful Land of 
Promise, whose valleys and meadows he was destined never to 
tread. Beneath his feet flowed the Jordan, never to be crossed by 
him ; opposite was Jericho, in its forest of shady palms ; to the north 
lay the lovely plain of Esdrelon ; and far beyond, the mountains of 



THE JEWS. 27 

Judea stretclied onward to tlie Great Sea. Gazing on this magnili- 
cent prospect with fjiding eyes, lie resigned his soul to its Creator. 
"But no man knoweth his sepulchre unto this day." 

For thirty days the people lamented their great leader, and then, 
under the direction of Joshua, prepared to recommence the war. 
Spies being despatched to the city of Jericho, reported, on their 
return, that the native inhabitants had become faint-hearted on 
learning of the valour and the miraculous protection of their 
invaders. Encouraged by this, the entire army crossed the Jordan, 
and laid siege to Jericho. At the end of seven days, it was taken, 
and every living thing within its walls put to death, except the 
family of Rahab, a harlot, who had harboured and concealed the 
spies. The next expedition was against Ai, a neighbouring city, 
and was at first repulsed with much loss. Being finally taken by 
stratagem, the place was burned, and the people exterminated — the 
usual consummation of a Jewish conquest. 

Palestine seems at this time to have been governed by a number 
of petty independent sovereigns. Five of these, headed by Adoni- 
zedek, king of the Jebusites, (whose city was afterwards Jerusalem,) 
attacked Gibeon, which had made an alliance with the enemy. 
Defeated by Joshua, they took refuge in a cave, whence, being dis- 
covered, they were taken, and hanged, as usual. Another confeder- 
acy at the north was likewise defeated in a single battle, and the 
chariots and horses, their main implements in war, were destroyed. 
This contest with the native tribes lasted for seven years, during 
which time, seven nations — the Canaanites, the Amorites, the Hit- 
tites, the Hivites, the Perizzites, the Girgasliites, and the Jebusites — 
had been entirely subdued ; thirty-one chiefs had fallen, and many 
cities had been depopulated and razed to the ground. 

Weary of war, they desisted from further slaughter, and their 
leader portioned out the conquered country among the successful 
tribes, assigning to each a separate tract. By these it was divided 
among the people, and every estate was held, as in later feudal 
times, by a tenure of military service. A tax of two-tenths was 
levied on all produce, one-tenth for the Levites, and the other for the 
support of the poor. After seeing his people peacefully settled in 
their new country, Joshua died, appointing no successor. The gov- 
ernment was thenceforth vested in chieftains and petty magistrates, 
called judges, who were, in reality, a species of military dictators. 

Ere long, a war with the remaining aborigines succeeded, which 



/ 



28 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

terminated in the destruction of many of their towns, and the pay- 
ment of tribute by others. Only the fierce inhabitants of the south, 
defended by their chariots of iron, remained unsubdued. An out- 
rage committed upon the concubine of a Levite, by some of the 
tribe of Benjamin, aroused all Israel against them. The offending 
tribe were cut off — men, women, and children — to the number of 
twenty-five thousand, and the lives of six hundred alone were 
spared to perpetuate the name of Benjamin. 

During many years which succeeded, portions of the Hebrews 
were alternately enslaved by the neighbouring people, and delivered 
by the craft and valour of their judges. 

Sisera, a powerful king of the Canaanites, having oppressed the 
northern tribes for twenty years, a confederacy was formed to 
recover their freedom. Under the command of Deborah, an Ama- 
zon and prophetess, Barak marshalled the forces of Israel on Mount 
Tabor. The vast army of their enemies, with nine hundred char- 
iots of iron, entered the plain of Esdrelon — ^the great battle-ground 
of nations. Overcome by a sudden attack from the mountain, many 
were slaughtered, and others perished in the overflowing Kishon. 
Sisera, taking refuge in the tent of Jael, a Kenite woman, was 
treacherously slain by her, a nail being driven into his head while 
sleeping. The hymn of Deborah, in honour of the victory, is one 
of the most striking specimens of primitive poetry, and valuable 
as an historic record. 

After forty years of peace, the wild tribes of Midian and Amalek 
marched fi:om their wilderness, overspread the whole country, and 
reduced the people to slavery. Gideon, a leader of the tribe of 
Manasseh, again delivered them, by a sudden night attack upon the 
camp of their invaders, whose arms, in the confasion, were turned 
upon each other. Fresh victories ensued, and the war ended with a 
loss of one hundred and twenty thousand of the Midianites and 
their allies. 

Some generations had passed away, when a new enemy, the 
Ammonites, crossed the Jordan, and threatened the destruction of 
the nation. Jephthah, a jndge of Israel, going forth to meet them, 
rashly and impiously vowed, if victorious, to sacrifice the first living 
thing that should meet him on his return. Having gained a great 
victory, his only daughter came forth, with music and dancing, to 
welcome her father home from the wars, and on her was his rash 
and cruel vow fulfilled. 



THE JEWS. 



29 



We next learn tliat, tlie Philistines prevailing against the southern 
tribes, a hero arose, named Samson, whose exploits seem to resemble 
those of Hercules and Antar, the strong-limbed champions of a 
primitive world. Among the many feats which he is recorded to 
have performed against the Philistines, are the destruction of their 
fields, the slaughter of an immense number at various times, the 
gates of Graza carried awaj, and finally, when, blind and captive, 
he was brought into their great temple to amuse them with feats of 
strength, his tearing its pillars from their foundation, and over- 
whelming himself and his enemies in a common ruin: 

* * * * " Straining all his nerves, he bowed — 
As with the force of winds and waters pent, 
When mountains tremble — those two massy pillars 
With horrible convulsion to and fro. 
He tugged, he shook, till down they came, and drew 
The whole roof after them in burst of thunder, 
Upon the heads of all who sat beneath ; 
Lords, ladies, captains, counsellors and priests, 
Their choice nobility and flower." — Milton. 



LJ ujJj dido dj cb tXJ Jj oj Jj iL o 

THE KINGS, UNTIL THE CAPTIYITT. 

A CHAMPION more efficient than the hero of mere physical force 
was soon to arise in behalf of Israel. The Philistines had now 
defeated them in battle after battle, and at last taken the Ark, 
which, as a last resort, had been carried to the field by the disheart- 
ened tribes. This mysterious emblem, however, was the cause of 
such trouble and annoyance to the idolators, that, at the end of 
some months, they gladly restored it to its rightful owners. Twenty 
years longer were the people oppressed by their enemy, when a new 
ruler arose in Israel. 

Samuel, a Levite, educated in the house of Eli the high-priest, 
had, from his early youth, received intimations of divine favour and 



30 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

inspiration. Having done mucli to extirpate idolatry among tlie 
people, he now stood forward as a civil and military dictator. 
Assembling the terrified Israelites, lie reassured them, gave battle 
to the enemy, and entirely defeated them. His administration of 
civil affairs was not less successful; but his sons proving corrupt 
and faithless, the people demanded the appointment of a king. 
This event had been anticipated by Moses, Avho provided both for 
the royal election and administration. The reverend man remon- 
strated, but left the people to their choice, which was for a mon- 
archy — "that our king might judge us, and go out before us, and 
fight our battles." By the divine command, Saul, a youth of tall 
and striking figure, and of resolute courage, was selected for their 
future ruler. To prepare him for this elevated station, his educa- 
tion was entrusted to the school of the prophets; but even during 
this tutelage, he signalized himself by his conduct and courage in 
defeating the Ammonites. Hereupon, Samuel resigned his author- 
ity; and with him ended the line of judges, during which Israel 
had been enslaved and harassed by its enemies for one hundred 
and thirty years, and had enjoyed peace and prosperity for more 
than three hundred. 

At a later period, the Philistines again overran the country ; but 
were, after various fortunes, totally discomfited by Saul and his 
valiant son Jonathan. The Amalekites, again disturbing the fron- 
tier, were almost entirely exterminated; and Agag, their king, 
whose life had been spared by Saul, was hewed in pieces before the 
altar, by command of Samuel. 

From this period, the life of Saul, rendered dangerous and 
unhappy by attacks of insanity, is closely connected with that of 
David, a brave and beautiful youth, whom Samuel had privately 
anointed as his successor. His early exhibitions of courage and 
prudence, his destruction of the gigantic Philistine Goliath, and his 
soothing with music the disordered mind of the king, are too well 
known to be repeated. Having attained great popularity by his 
prowess against the enemy, and being married to Michal, the daugh- 
ter of Saul, his life was often endangered by the king's wayward 
jealousy. He perceived that, despite the generous devotion of his 
friend Jonathan, there was no safety for him at court, and, taking 
refuge in a cave at Adullam, became the leader of a band of dis- 
contented adventurers. 

Saul, meanwhile, suspecting the priesthood of a conspiracy, 



THE JEWS. 



31 



slauglitered many of them witliout mercy, and thus lost the sup- 
port of that dangerous and influential class of people. 

At times, the unfortunate king of Israel, touched by the virtues of 
David, and his reverence for the royal person, had become reconciled 
to him; at others, an insane jealousy prompted him to seek the 
life of his unoffending son with the first weapon. Barely escaping 
from his vengeance, and often exhibiting great forbearance and 
magnanimity, the persecuted man at length took refuge with the 
enemy, where Achish, their king, assigned Ziklag as a residence for 
him and his two wives. Meanwhile, the venerable Samuel, so long 
the hope and oracle of the nation, died, and with great lamentation 
was buried at Eamah. 

The end of the unhappy Saul was at hand. Deserted by many 
of his people, haunted by a dread of impending misfortune, and 
refused all comfort and oracular encouragement from the priests, he 
sought in despair the haunt of a noted witch — one of a race which 
he had endeavoured to extirpate from the land. He proceeded to 
her cave in disguise, and desired that the shade of Samuel might be 
evoked. Mighty sj^irits arose from the earth, and among them the 
prophet, an old man covered with a mantle, who responded with a 
fearful warning of his defeat and death on the morrow. 

The next day the king gave battle to his enemies on Mount 
Gilboa, and, pierced with arrows, fell on his own sword. His brave 
son Jonathan and the flower of Israel died with him. The lament 
of David over the royal chieftains, his former friends, is sublime and 
beautiful: "Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their 
lives, and in their death they were not divided," 

Called to the throne by universal acclamation, David displayed 
all the qualities of a brave leader and a sagacious prince. The 
Philistines every where withdrew, and left the chosen people in 
peace. After reigning some years at Hebron, he seized a citadel of 
the Jebusites, most favourably situated, and there laid the founda- 
tions of the wondrous city of Jerusalem. 

The ark was removed thither, and the national religion established 
in security and magnificence. Desirous of building a suitable tem- 
ple, he was deterred by a divine prohibition, through the prophet 
Nathan: "Thou hast shed blood abundantly, and hast made great 
wars; thou shalt not build a house unto my name, because thou 
hast shed much blood upon the earth in my sight." 

Pursuing his victorious and sanguinary career, he overthrew with 



32 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

great slaughter the Philistines, the Edomites, Moabites, and Syrians, 
and extended his empire until it was bounded by the Euphrates and 
the southern desert. Insulted by the Ammonites, who had shaved 
the beards and curtailed the skirts of his embassy, he defeated them 
with great loss, and subjected the survivors to the most cruel torture 
and execution. 

From this time a series of errors and misfortunes followed him to 
the grave. His licentious seizure pf Uriah's wife, with the murder 
of her husband, and its punishment, incest and murder among his 
children, and finally the rebellion of Absalom, his favourite son, 
followed each other in rapid succession. The prince, a young man 
of great beauty and popular manners, aided and incited by Ahito- 
phel, a subtle conspirator, raised the standard of revolt, and the king 
in his old age was compelled to flee from Jerusalem. His usurping 
son seized the capital, and took possession of the royal harem, 
David, in time, assembling an army, sought to regain his crown. 
Battle being joined, and the revolted forces defeated, Absalom, in 
flight, was entangled by his long hair among the boughs of an oak, 
and there slain by Joab, the fierce and unscrupulous general of the 
royal forces. The king's anxiety for his safety, and his grief on 
learning the fatal issue, are most eloquently described: "Would 
God I had died for thee, oh Absalom, my son, my son!" 

Another rebellion succeeded, headed by an adventurer named 
Sheba. This suppressed, a famine ensued, and seven of the descend- 
ants of Saul were sacrificed, as a propitiatory offering. But Kizpah, 
the mother of two of them, watched the remains "from the begin- 
ning of harvest until water dropped on them out of heaven, and 
suffered neither the birds of the air to rest on them by day, nor the 
beasts of the field by night." 

The king now determined to number the souls in his extensive 
dominions, and after a census of nine months, discovered that in 
Israel and Judah there were one million three hundred thousand 
men fit to bear arms. A desolating pestilence succeeded. The old 
age of David was passed in making great preparations for a temple 
to be erected by his successor. Having anointed Solomon, his son 
by Bathsheba, as successor to the throne, he enjoined upon him, on 
his death-bed, that he should keep inviolate the Mosaic laws, and 
take the first opportunity to destroy Joab and Shimei, who had been 
his enemies. He then died, having reigned forty years, first over 
scattered and oppressed tribes, and afterwards over the empire which 



THE JEWS. 



83 



he had founded, extending from Egypt to Lebanon, and from the 
Euphrates to the Great Sea. He was a man of the greatest and 
most diversified talent — a warrior, a legislator, a prophet, and a 
poet of the highest order. Though often manifesting great affection 
and magnanimity, some of his deeds are strongly marked by the 
fierce and merciless spirit of the age. 

At the age of twenty, Solomon ascended the throne. His first 
act was to put to death his brother Adonijah, of whom, he was 
jealous. He next killed Joab and Shimei, according to his father's 
direction. Despite these acts of violence, his reign was eminently 
peacefal, judicious, and prosperous, and Israel and Judah dwelt 
safely "every man under his vine and under his fig-tree, from Dan 
to Beersheba." The administration of justice, the financial affairs 
of the kingdom, and its foreign relations, were all carefally and 
wisely overseen. Then, too, for the first time, the Israelites engaged 
largely in commerce. The trade through Tyre to Tarshish, (proba- 
bly Carthage,) the overland caravans to Egypt and the Arabian 
peninsula, and the venturous expeditions to Ophir by the Eed Sea, 
were the fruits of the king's enlightened policy. He built as sta- 
tions for the trafiic between the Euphrates and the sea, the splendid 
cities of Palmyra and Baalbec, whose ruins still excite the highest 
admiration. The magnificent temple at Jerusalem was another 
trophy of his genius and resources. His wisdom and learning were 
as proverbial among his contemporaries as they have been with suc- 
ceeding generations. His many works of poetry, natural history, 
and philosophy, have perished, except the books of Proverbs and 
Ecclesiastes, and a fragment of his thousand and five songs. 

His government was strengthened by judicious alliances with 
Tyre and with Egypt, a princess of which he took to wife. His later 
days appear to have been marked by a strange idolatrous infatua- 
tion, or perhaps rather a weak deference to his wives and concubines, 
many of whom held the idolatrous belief After a reign of forty 
years, Solomon expired, and with him the renown and strength of 
the Jewish nation. 

Eehoboam, his son, succeeded. This headstrong youth, when the 
people remonstrated against their burdens, replied, "My, father made 
your yoke heavy, and I will add to your yoke ; my father chastised 
you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." Ten of the 
tribes instantly revolted, and made Jeroboam, their leader, ruler 
over the new kingdom of Israel or Ephraim. Eehoboam was reduced 
3 



34 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

to his native possessions in Judea, and to the allegiance of the tribes 
of Judah and Benjamin, Ere long, Shishak, king of Egypt, attacked 
Judah, and plundered the temple of its treasures. 

Abijah, the son of Eehoboam, succeeding him, attacked Jeroboam 
with a great force, and totally defeated him. At the end of three 
years he died, and his son Asa succeeded to the kingdom of Judah, 
B. C. 959. 

Meanwhile, the posterity of Jeroboam being extirpated, the new 
kingdom of Israel became the prey of a succession of adventurers, 
who slew and replaced each other, very much in the manner of the 
smaller Eastern nations at present. Finally, about B. C. 919, Ahab, 
the son of Omri, surpassed all his predecessors in wickedness. 
Having espoused Jezebel, daughter of the king of Sidon, he intro- 
duced the worship of Baal or the sun, and slew the prophets of the 
true God. These inspired and influential men were always especially 
obnoxious to a tyrannical government : they stood forward boldly 
in defence of their laws and religion, and fearlessly denounced 
oppression and backsliding among the rulers of the land. 

Elijah, one of the most eminent, having escaped, appeared before 
Ahab, reproved his apostacy, and announced its punishment in a 
fearful drought. This having occurred, he challenged the idolatrous 
priests to a trial of power ; in which, being vanquished, they were 
put to death, to the number of four hundred and fifty. Ben-hadad, 
king of Syria, twice attacking Samaria, was totally defeated. Mes- 
sengers being despatched to sue for peace, Ahab, with unwonted 
magnanimity, exclaimed, "Is he yet alive? he is my brother!" and 
accorded honourable terms. Having committed many crimes, he 
was finally slain in battle with the Syrians. 

During this time, Asa had reigned peacefully for forty-one years 
over the kingdom of Judah, and his son Jehosaphat had succeeded 
him. The latter having made an alliance with Ahab, was defeated 
in the battle above referred to. Ahaziah, son of Ahab, after a brief 
reign, was succeeded by his brother Jehoram, who, in concert with 
the forces of Judah and Edom, defeated the king of Moab. To 
Jehosaphat succeeded his son Jehoram, each kingdom being at this 
time governed by a ruler of the same name. The Judean having 
killed his brothers at his accession, experienced a series of misfor- 
tunes. Edom, which had heretofore been tributary to him, revolted, 
and the successful insurgents took possession of Elath, his only 
remaining port on the Eed Sea. Attacked by the Philistines and 



THE JEWS. 35 

Arabians, his capital and seraglio were taken, and his children, 
except one, were slain. He died nnhonoured, and Ahaziah, his son, 
mounted the throne. 

Meanwhile, the king of Israel was engaged in a desperate war 
with the Syrians. Elijah had bequeathed his mantle and his spirit 
of prophecy to Elisha, on whom the hopes of the Jewish race now 
rested. Already the fame of his miracles had spread through the 
land, and had even reached Syria, where Naaman, a high officer of 
Ben-hadad, was cured by him of a leprosy. The city of Samaria was 
now beleagured on all sides, and the sufferings of the people, and their 
dreadful resort to cannibalism, remind us of that more terrible siege so 
often predicted by the prophets, and so fatally fulfilled. At length the 
seer announced the departure of the Syrian army ; and three lepers 
sallying forth, discovered that the enemy, alarmed by mysterious 
sounds of battle, had fled in dismay. Soon after, Hazael, a Syrian 
officer, having murdered his sovereign and seized the crown, defeated 
at Ramoth the king of Israel and Ahaziah, son of the Judean Jehoram. 
By command of Elisha, Jehu, the furious driver, was now anointed 
as king of Israel. The army revolted, and espoused his cause. He 
drove rapidly to Jezreel, where his first act was to slay the two 
kings, Jehoram and Ahaziah, who had come to meet him, in their 
chariots. Entering Jezreel in triumph, and irritated by the taunts 
of Jezebel, he commanded her to be thrown from her window into 
the street, where the dogs gnawed her remains, according to the 
prophet's prediction. Seventy descendants of Ahab and forty -two 
of Ahaziah were put to death, and the usurper mounted the throne 
of Israel without opposition. Assisted by Jehonadab, the ascetic, 
he totally exterminated the priests of Baal, and rooted out all idola- 
tries, except that of the golden calves, which had always been 
especially dear to the people and their rulers. 

Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and wife of Jehoram of Judah, 
seized the throne of that country, murdered all the heirs, except 
one, and reigned for six years, during which the worship of Baal 
was established at Jerusalem. At the end of this time, Jehoiada the" 
high-priest organized a conspiracy, slew the queen and the priest of 
Baal, proclaimed Joash, the surviving heir, a child of seven, and, 
during the minority, took the government into his own hands. 

Hazael, the usurping king of Syria, had gradually encroached 
upon the possessions of Israel during the reign of Jehu; and in 
that of Jehoahaz, his successor, had almost reduced it to a small 



36 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

tributary province. He now turned his arms upon Joasli, (who had 
received his crown,) took Gath, and advanced on Jerusalem. After 
various reverses, having apostatized, and been denounced by the 
prophet Zachariah, Joash was defeated by the Syrians, miirdered by 
his own officers, and refused the honour of royal sepulture. 

Amaziah, his son and successor, with a great army, invaded the 
revolted kingdom of Edom, and took the city of Petra. Elated by 
success, he attacked Jehoash, king of Israel. The army of Judah 
was totally routed, Jerusalem taken, and the treasures of the temple 
carried to Samaria. Fifteen years afterwards, Amaziah fell, the victim 
of a conspiracy, and was succeeded by his son Uzziah or Azariah. 

During a prosperous reign of fifty-two years, this prince did much 
to restore the kingdom to its former flourishing condition. He 
defeated the Philistines, recovered the important port of Elath, on 
the Ked Sea, fortified Jerusalem, and improved the agriculture of 
the country. Being smitten with leprosy, he was, in conformity 
with the law of Moses, deposed from his office, and his son Jotham 
appointed in his stead. 

The kingdom of Israel, also, had now regained a portion of its 
ancient prosperity. Jeroboam II., who succeeded Jehoash (B. C. 
825), reconquered the eastern provinces, and even took the city of 
Damascus. At his death, anarchy prevailed : his son Zachariah was 
killed by Shallum, and he by Menahem, during whose reign the 
nation became tributary to Assyria. That mighty empire, indeed, 
now seemed advancing to universal conquest. Syria was half over- 
thrown, and Palestine lay before it an easy prey. The prophets 
lifted their voices in wilder warning and denunciation, and the fall 
of nation after nation bore witness to the truth of their inspiration. 
In the midst of terror and prophetical foreboding, they chanted the 
death-song of surrounding empires — of Moab and Ammon, of Tyre 
and Damascus, and of their dreaded oppressor Nineveh herself. 
But over the land of the Chosen People — over Judah and Israel, 
arose more eloquent and pathetic wailings than ever lamented the fall 
of nation or dynasty. All national poetry sinks into insignificance 
before these sublime prophecies and lamentations. A long succession 
of genius and inspiration found its appropriate and sufficient climax 

" In rapt Isaiah's wild prophetic fire," 

where first the promise of a Comforter and Eedeemer is fully and 
vividly accorded. 



THE JEWS. 



87 



To Menaliem succeeded Peliekiali, who was slain by Pekah, a new 
usurper. In Judak, Jotkam left the crown to his son Ahaz, the 
most unfortunate monarch of his line. Pekah and Pezin, king of 
Syria, joined in confederacy, invaded his bounds, and after a terrible 
battle, carried two hundred thousand of his subjects into captivity. 
Eezin seized Elath ; the Edomites and Philistines revolted ; and 
Ahaz, in despair, sought the aid of Assyria. Eelieved thus of his 
immediate enemies, he fell into a more degrading and dangerous 
servitude to his ally, and imitated his idolatries. 

Pekah, meanwhile, had. been assassinated, and Hoshea, who suc- 
ceeded him, was made tributary to Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. 
Finally, that monarch advanced into his territories, took Samaria, 
after a siege of three years, and terminated for ever the independent 
existence of the kingdom of Israel. 

Great numbers of the unfortunate Israelites were transplanted to 
a mountainous region in Media, and their places filled by colonists 
from Assyria. From this time we lose sight of the ten tribes, as a 
distinct people. Many fanciful theories of their destiny have been 
framed ; but it is most reasonably inferred that they gradually became 
mingled and absorbed among the people with whom they were settled. 

Six years before the destruction of Israel or Samaria, Hezekiah, 
a pious and sagacious monarch, replaced his father Ahaz on the 
throne of Judah. Idolatry was once more extirpated, and the 
ancient rites restored. Even the brazen serpent of Moses was 
destroyed. The passover was celebrated with great magnificence. 
He defeated the Philistines, and threw off the yoke of Assyria, daily 
increasing in weight. For a time, the vengeance of Shalmaneser 
was diverted from Judah by the conquest of Tyre, which sustained 
with great bravery a siege of five years. His son Senacherib sent 
an immense army, which took up its position before Lachish, The 
unfortunate Hezekiah submitted, and ransomed his crown by pay- 
ment of an enormous tributCj which compelled him to strip the 
very walls of the temple. 

The Assyrian leader marched to the conquest of Egypt, but a 
portion of his army which remained, renewed a demand for the 
surrender of Jerusalem, and sent the townsmen a message, which 
Eabshakeh, their envoy, delivered in most insulting language. By 
advice of Isaiah, the king refused submission ; and on receiving a 
second summons from the Assyrian monarch, trusted for defence to 
the Protector of the chosen race. His trust was not in vain. In a 



38 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

single night, smitten by an unseen destroyer, (supposed by some to 
have been the simoom,) ttie mighty host of the invader was annihi- 
lated, and Senacherib himself, flying in terror to his capital, was 
assassinated by his own sons. Hezekiah survived this wonderful 
event fifteen years, during which, he strengthened the cities, improved 
agriculture, and saw his people prosperous. 

He was succeeded by Manasseh, whose irreligion and cruelty 
became proverbial. Idolatry was restored, and the temple itself 
polluted with a graven image. He laid violent hands upon the 
prophets, shed the blood of innocent persons, and is said to have 
caused the revered Isaiah to be sawn asunder. Esarhaddon, king 
of Assyria, appearing before the walls, he submitted without a 
struggle, and with his people was carried in captivity to Babylon. 
The policy of transplanting the inhabitants, and replacing them 
with Assyrians, was continued by Esarhaddon. From this union 
of nations, a mingled worship of true religion and idolatry sprang 
up in the land. Manasseh being finally permitted to reoccupy his 
throne, completed a reign of fifty-five years, latterly with more 
observance of laws and religion. 

His son Amon being murdered by his own officers, was succeeded 
by Josiah, whose memory is deservedly dear to the Jewish nation. 
He extirpated idolatry, repaired the temple, and inculcated the true 
religion. The original book of the law being discovered by Hilkiah 
the high-priest, the king was struck with terror at its awful warn- 
ings and forebodings, and, with all the nation, renewed a solemn 
covenant with the Lord. This wise and religious monarch, had he 
survived, might, perhaps, have restored Judah in some degree to its 
ancient grandeur ; but espousing the cause of Assyria against Necho, 
king of Egypt, he was slain in battle with the latter, near the frontier. 
At this period appeared the prophet Jeremiah, whose sorrowful and 
desponding tone of genius was well fitted to bewail the fall of the 
last kingdom of the race of Abraham. Necho having defeated the 
Assyrians, seized Jerusalem, deposed the new king, Jehoahaz, and 
appointed another, Eliakim (Jehoiakim). 

In the fourth year of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar, son of the 
Assyrian monarch, was associated with his father in the empire and 
command of the army. Jehoiakim, resisting his authority, was 
carried in chains to Babylon, the temple was plundered of its treas- 
ures, and many youths of high family were carried into captivity. 
Among these were Daniel, and the celebrated three — Shadrach, 



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THE JEWS. 



89 



Meshach, and Abednego — wliose striking story is so universally 
known. The king having been reinstated, and again revolting, 
was again besieged in Jerusalem, and finally slain (B. 0. 598). 

His son Jehoiacliini had hardly ascended the throne, when the 
Assyrian army appeared before Jerusalem, and carried away the 
royal family, the treasures, and many of the nobility and artisans, 
to Babylon. Over what remained, Zedekiah, a son of Josiah, was 
appointed as a kind of viceroy. Encouraged by the Egyptians, in 
the ninth year of his reign he revolted, notwithstanding the remon- 
strances of Jeremiah. His allies were defeated, and Jerusalem was 
again besieged. After a long and determined resistance, the inhab- 
itants, subdued by famine, opened their gates. The king was seized, 
and his children were slain before his eyes. He was then blinded, 
and led away to an Assyrian dungeon. Soon after, the city, palaces, 
and temples were levelled in universal ruin. The remaining treasures 
of the temple were sent to Babylon, the chief-priests slaughtered, 
and the others carried to the enemy's capital. On this occasion 
Jeremiah delivered that sublime elegy which forms a fitting climax 
to all former lamentations and prophecies of wo. 

The miserable remnant of the Jewish nation was placed under the 
rule of Gredaliah, as a pasha of the Assyrian ; and the seat of govern- 
ment was fixed at Mizpeh. Many of the inhabitants fled to Egypt; 
and thus closes the first period of Jewish history. Nothing is more 
unusual than that a people, enslaved and expatriated, should resume 
their national existence, and retain their distinct national character- 
istics. But the wonderful principle of vitality inherent in the Mosaic 
Law preserved them a distinct race, as well during the Babylonish 
captivity, as during that wider dispersion, which at later times suc- 
ceeded. We shall see them again, ere long, take their place among 
nations, pursue a more extraordinary career, and at last encounter a 
more fearful overthrow and dissolution. 

On reviewing the various records of their chequered existence to 
this period, we perceive a strong family resemblance in the various 
branches of the Jewish race. Often revengeful, treacherous, and 
cruel, they were capable, at times, of high magnanimity and refinement 
of feeling. The social affections were exceedingly strong, though 
sometimes sacrificed to revenge and ambition. Considering their lim- 
ited number, they were among the most valiant and warlike of 
nations ; and peculiarly excelled in that stubborn, resolute endurance, 
which often carries its point against the most disproportionate odds. 



40 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Arts and manufactures had. attained a certain perfection, thougli 
probably not excelling that of surrounding nations; in the science 
of architecture, they were certainly inferior to many of their con- 
temporaries, especially the Greeks and Egyptians. Marine com- 
merce appears to have been principally carried on by the aid of their 
neighbours, the Phoenicians, and the overland caravans to Egypt 
and the East constituted their most important trade. Their superi- 
ority to the surrounding tribes and empires is principally to hd 
found in their clearer and more exalted ideas of a single Divine 
Being, though they still exhibited that perpetual tendency to lapse 
into idolatry, which characterizes a semi-barbarous race. 



CHAPTEEI?. 

THE RESTOEATION. MISFOETUNES OP THE HEBEEWS. — THE 

MACCABEES. GRADUAL ASCENDANCY OE ROME. 

Though the grief of the captive nation was naturally great, and 
though they "sat by the waters of Babylon, and wept as they 
remembered Sion," yet the conduct of their new masters appears to 
have been mild and considerate, and their treatment rather that of 
colonists than slaves. Daniel and other youths of good family were 
entertained at the king's court, and instructed in all the learning of 
the Chaldeans. 

Assyria soon falling before the united power of the Medes and 
Persians, Daniel, already distinguished by his skill in prophecy and 
interpretation, was advanced to a high oflice under the new govern- 
ment. Darius, and afterwards Cyrus, appreciated and rewarded his 
talents ; and it was probably through his influence that the latter, 
seventy years after the captivity, issued a decree for the restoration 
of the Hebrews to their native land. Assembling to the number of 
forty-two thousand three hundred and sixty, under Zerubbabel, a 
descendant of their kings, they returned to Jerusalem, bearing a few 
relics of the sacred treasures which once had adorned the splendid 
edifice of Solomon. 



THE JEWS. 41 

Eenewing tlieir ancient rites, they laid tlie corner-stone of a new 
temple, amid the tears of a few old men, who yet remembered its 
former glory. Their resources were indeed miserably insufficient, 
compared with the wealth of David and Solomon, The Samaritans, 
a race descended from the ten tribes and the Assyrian colonists, 
offered, it is true, to assist in the great work devoted to their common 
religion. Their overtures, however, were contemptuously rejected 
on account of the ancient animosity between Judah and Israel — an 
animosity afterwards deepening into the most bitter and irreconcila- 
ble hatred. 

During the captivity, the national faith had undergone consider- 
able modification. The belief in a future life, and the coming of a 
Messiah, their exclusive king and redeemer, had, from the teachings 
of the prophets, assumed a firm place in their peculiar belief. 

While Cambyses reigned, and pursued his conquests, the people 
made little progress in rebuilding their city and temple ; but Darius 
Hystaspes, his successor on the Persian throne, in reverence to the 
ancient edict of Cyrus, furthered their wishes. The temple was 
completed in six years, and its dedication celebrated with sacrifices 
— few and meagre, indeed, compared with those of their ancestors. 
Darius was succeeded by the celebrated Xerxes, supposed to be the 
Ahazuerus of the Book of Esther. In this interesting and truly 
oriental tale, we see a daughter of the dependant race advanced to 
high station in the royal harem, procuring the ofl&ce of vizier for a 
friend, and causing the execution of his rival, the enemy of her 
people. Before his deposition and death, however, he had issued an 
order for the destruction of the Jews throughout the Persian empire. 
At the request of the favourite, messengers were despatched, on 
horses and fleet dromedaries, to the various cities, with permission 
to the proscribed race to defend themselves. This they did so effect- 
ually as to slay seventy-five thousand of their antagonists in the 
several provinces. 

The reign of Artaxerxes, the next king, was favourable to them„ 
Ezra, a man of priestly descent, headed a new migration from Baby- 
lonia, and established laws and magistrates. Afterwards ISTehemiah, 
a Jewish favourite, was permitted to rebuild and fortify the city, 
which he accomplished in the incredibly short time of fifty -two 
days. Every tenth man, by lot, was compelled to enrol himself as 
a citizen and defender of Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Ezra had com- 
piled the Sacred Writings in nearly the same order in which they 



42 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

now stand, tliougli several books were subsequently added. Dissen- 
sions occurring between Nebemiah and the priesthood, Manasseb, 
son of tbe bigb-priest, was expelled from Jerusalem. In revenge, 
bis friends built a rival temple on Mount Gerizim, and appointed 
bim bigb-priest. Tbe breacb between Samaria and Jerusalem was 
tbus widened still furtber, and tbe latter by degrees fell entirely 
under tbe government of ber bigb-priests. One of tbese baving 
murdered bis brotber in tbe sanctuary, tbe Persian governor entered 
tbe temple, and imposed a beavy penalty on tbe wbole people. 

About tbis time, Alexander tbe Grreat was besieging Tyre, and 
tbe Jews made submission to bim. Tbe Samaritans revolting, be 
expelled tbem, and planted Macedonians in tbeir room. 

After bis deatb, Ptolemy of Egypt, assaulting Jerusalem on tbe 
Sabbatb, took it witbout resistance, and carried one bundred thou- 
sand captives to Alexandria and Gyrene. It was twice taken by 
Antigonus, and twice regained by Ptolemy, witb wbom it finally 
remained. Antiocbus of Syria baving seized Judea, and been com- 
pelled to rebnquisb it, again attacked it, in tbe reign of tbe next 
Ptolemy (Epipbanes), and at last wrested it from tbe Egyptians. It 
was afterwards bestowed upon Ptolemy as tbe dowry of bis daugh- 
ter Cleopatra (tbe elder). 

After it bad been for a long time distracted by internal factions, 
Antiocbus Epimanes, baving conquered Egypt, and learning of a 
revolt, marched against Jerusalem, put to death forty thousand of 
the inhabitants, and sold as many more for slaves. After pillaging 
and marring tbe temple in every way, be sacrificed a great sow 
upon tbe altar, boiled a part, and caused the defiling fluid to be 
scattered over tbe sacred building. Two years afterwards, in execu- 
tion of another sanguinary edict, Appolonius, bis legate, attacked 
the unresisting people on the Sabbatb, slew a vast number, pillaged 
the. city, and set it on fire. The temple was dedicated to Jupiter 
Olympus, Bacchanalia were substituted for tbe national festivals, and 
the unfortunate survivors throughout Judea were compelled to join 
in idolatrous rites, or to undergo tbe most cruel martyrdom. 

Tbe Jewish nation and the worship of Jehovah were near tbeir 
total extermination, when a new deliverer arose. Mattathias, a man 
of priestly descent, with bis five sons — Johanan, Simon, Judas, 
Eleazer, and Jonathan — excited a most vigorous resistance near tbe 
coast. After obtaining important successes, be died, bequeathing 
bis command to Judas, called Maccabseus, the most prudent and 



THE JEWS. 



43 



valiant of his sons. He defeated general after general of the Syrian 
forces, and at last entered in triumph the city of Jerusalem, now 
desolate and overgrown with thick underwood like a forest. The 
city was fortified, the temple was purified, and the national worship 
restored. Many oppressed provinces were enfranchised, and the 
valiant Maccabees continued to pursue a series of victories until the 
death of Antioohus. Under his successor, after a desperate contest, 
they were compelled to retreat to Jerusalem, and finally to surren- 
der. Again defeating his enemies, the wise and patriotic Judas 
entered into treaty with Rome, for the sake of her important coun- 
tenance and protection; but ere the news of its ratification reached 
him, fell gloriously in defending his country against a fresh attack. 
After great reverses, his brother Jonathan succeeded in again assert- 
ing the national independence, and, with the title of high -priest, 
governed and defended Judea bravely and sagaciously. Being 
treacherously murdered by a Syrian ofiicer, he was succeeded by 
his brother Simon. 

Under his wise and impartial administration, the country enjoyed 
great prosperity. The former magnificence of the temple and capi- 
tal were, in a great degree, restored; but like his brothers, he perished 
by violence, being assassinated in his old age by an ambitious 
conspirator. 

His son John Hyrcanus, inheriting the ability of his family, 
eluded the danger, and was proclaimed high-priest and ruler at 
Jerusalem. Besieged there by the Syrians, under another Anti- 
ochus, he was compelled to become tributary; but on the death of 
the king, reasserted the independence of Judea, which was main- 
tained until the Roman conquest. Among other achievements, he 
took Sichem, and destroyed the rival temple on Mount Gerizim, 
which had been for two hundred years an eye-sore to the Jewish 
nation. He took Idumea, and completely incorporated it with his 
dominions ; and, after a most obstinate contest, became master of all 
Galilee and Samaria, and razed the hated city to the ground. His 
reign, which lasted twenty-nine years, was much troubled with 
dissensions between the Pharisees and Sadducees, who by this time 
had formed two great and irreconcilable factions. 

His son Aristobulus, after murdering several of his relatives, died 
of remorse, and was succeeded by Alexander Jannasus, the next heir. 
His reign was marked by continual contests with the Syrians and 
with his own people, of whom he put great numbers to death. 



44 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

His son Hyrcanus II. espoused tlie cause of the Pharisees, and by 
their support had reigned in tolerable quiet for some years, when 
his brother Aristobulus, who headed the opposite party, usurped the 
government. After various contests, the brothers submitted their 
quarrel to Pompey the Great, then at Damascus, who, after several 
delays, settled the question by marching into and taking possession 
of the disputed territory for the Eoman people. Having entered 
Jerusalem, the most resolute of the factions took possession of the 
temple and citadel, which sustained a siege of three months. It was 
finally taken by means of military engines brought from Tyre ; and 
the conqueror excited the wonder and terror of the Jews by exam- 
ining every part of the sacred edifice, and even profaning the Holy 
of Holies by his heathen presence. He spared the splendid treasures, 
commanded the temple to be piirified, appointed Hyrcanus high- 
priest over Judea, fixed a tribute, and departed. Nothing, however, 
could induce the Jews to forgive his desecration of their temple ; and 
in the civil wars which ensued, they embraced, throughout the 
world, the party of Caesar; for by this time extensive colonies of 
them had settled in other lands, especially in Egypt, where their 
numbers have been estimated at a million. During the war, Aristo- 
bulus and his talented son Alexander, who had made many attempts 
against the Eomans, were cut off, and Hyrcanus remained in posses- 
sion of his office. Antipater, his prime minister, by his influence 
with Caesar, gradually supplanting him, appointed Phasael, his own 
son, to the government of Jerusalem, and Herod, another, to that 
of Gralilee. After various reverses, Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus, 
claiming the kingdom, and seizing Jerusalem, by aid of the Parthi- 
ans, Herod barely escaped with his life. He fled to Eome, and such 
was his influence with Augustus and Antony, that in a brief time 
he returned with the crown of Judea. He suffered, at first, various 
defeats and reverses; but finally, with the assistance of the Eoman 
legions, under Sosius, took Jerusalem after a siege of half a year, 
saved it from destruction at the hands of his allies, and sent Anti- 
gonus in chains to Antony. The chiefs of the opposite faction were 
mostly executed, and the whole Sanhedrim, except two, shared the 
same fate. Having espoused the beautiful Mariamne, daughter of 
Alexander, and raised her brother Aristobulus to the office of high- 
priest, he soon caused him to be treacherously murdered, dreading 
his popularity. Having experienced great danger, first from the 
hatred of Cleopatra, the mistress of Antony, who had begged his 



THE JEWS. 45 

kingdom from her lover, and afterwards from lier love, lie thought 
to have her assassinated, but was dissuaded by his friends. About 
this time, a dreadful earthquake overthrew many cities in Judea, 
and destroyed thirty thousand lives. 

After the battle of Actium, fresh perils awaited him, from his 
intimacy with the defeated Antony. But with that extraordinary 
boldness and presence of mind which never deserted him, he imme- 
diately sought the conqueror, and addressed him in a speech of such 
art and persuasiveness, that Augustus loaded him with renewed 
honours and possessions. 

Meanwhile, his palace was filled with wretchedness and domestic 
crime. The murder of one relative after another was succeeded by 
that of Mariamne, whose execution he ordered in a fit of jealousy. 
From that moment his life was marked by the deepest gloom and 
frequent insanity. Yet his administration was in general judicious, 
liberal, and magnificent ; and the success and splendour of his public 
career contrast most strongly with the cruelty and weakness of his 
domestic life. He endeavoured, by introducing Greek refinement 
and Eoman amusement, to soften the narrow and sectional character 
of his people; he erected splendid public buildings, founded new 
citadels, and rebuilt the ancient city of Samaria. In a dreadful fam- 
ine, he imported corn from Egj^pt, and supported the necessitous. 
Among other public-spirited acts, he founded and completed in 
twelve years the splendid city of Ci3esarea, named in honour of his 
patron Augustus Caesar, in whose favour he stood next to Agrippa ; 
and he rebuilt the temple with unprecedented magnificence. 

The wretchedness of his private career continued. Constantly 
suspicious of his sons, he was often on the point of despatching them. 
At last, he ordered the execution of Alexander and Aristobulus, 
the innocent sons of Mariamne ; and, on his death-bed, that of Anti- 
pater, another son, who had in reality attempted his life. An 
atrocious order, which he is said to have given, for the massacre of 
all the principal persons in Jerusalem at his death, was disregarded. 
Among his later atrocities, was the "Murder of the Innocents" in the 
little town of Bethlehem. Having in his last moments disposed of 
his kingdom, and ordered the execution of his son, he expired, 
leaving a character for talent and wickedness seldom equalled. 

By his will, Galilee and Perasa were assigned to Herod Antipas, 
one of his sons, and Judea, Samaria, and Idumea to Archelaus, 
another. During the absence of the latter at Eome, to support the 



46 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, 

will before Augustus, the most terrible anarcliy prevailed, and tlie 
neighbouring Eoman generals, taking advantage, seized Jerusalem, 
and put to death great numbers of the people. 

Despite a petition from the Jews for the restoration of their ancient 
government, the will of Herod was, for the most part, confirmed by 
the emperor; and Archelaus returning, ruled for nine years with 
great tyranny. An accusation being then preferred against him at 
Eome, he was banished to Gaul, and his kingdom reduced to a 
Eoman province ; and thus the sceptre for ever departed from Judah. 



CHAPTER ? 



THE ROMAN GOVERNMENT, AND THE DESTRUCTION OF 
JERUSALEM. 



The government was now that of a colonial district, dependant on 
the prefecture of Syria; the judicial and ecclesiastical authority being 
still vested in the Sanhedrim, or Council of Elders, which was in 
communication with the Eoman governor. 

The population was mostly divided into two great factions ; first 
and most popular, that of the Pharisees, who believed in a future 
existence, and pretended to great sanctity ; and secondly, the Saddu- 
cees, who, denying a future existence, were inflexibly severe in the 
enforcement of human law and punishment. There was also a small 
sect called the Essenes, of exceedingly rigid and ascetic manners. 

Publius Sulpicius Quirinus, being appointed governor of Syria, 
found it necessary to take a census of the population and property 
in Judea, for purposes of taxation. A resistance to this, headed by 
one Judas, was suppressed, and the insurgents executed with the 
most cruel torture. Throughout the remainder of the reign of 
Augustus, Judea was subject to a succession of Eoman governors. 
In the long reign of Tiberias, he appointed only two, Yalerius Gratus 
and Pontius Pilate, (A. D. 27,) comparing a Eoman province to the 
wounded man (in the fable) attacked by a swarm of flies, from whom 



THE JEWS. 



47 



it would be folly to drive them away, that the more hungry might 
instantly succeed. 

During this period, though Judea enjoyed tranquillity, the Jews, 
from a jealousy of their influence, suffered great persecutions in 
Italy. Pontius Pilate, the Eoman praetor, now removed the seat of 
government from Cassarea to Jerusalem. Of a stern, decided char- 
acter, yet not disposed to unnecessary cruelty, nor heedless of popular 
favour, he ruled the people with firm, yet judicious control. His 
worst act appears to have been the weakness or policy of yielding 
the Saviour to the infuriated priesthood. He would gladly have 
transferred the case to the jurisdiction of Herod, and was evidently 
smitten with remorse at his own injustice; for he took water, and 
washed his hands, saying, "I am innocent of the blood of this just 
person; see ye to it." 

This is not the place for a recital of the wondrous life, teachings, 
and martyrdom of Christ ; suffice it to say, that the Hebrews dis- 
played, on this occasion, the same narrow and unrelenting spirit 
which had always characterized their treatment of all opposing the 
popular religious belief 

Pilate having been recalled, and Caiaphas degraded from the 
priesthood, Tiberias died, and was succeeded by Caligula. His 
insane vanity prompted him to demand divine honours from his 
subjects throughout the whole empire. The Jews in Alexandria 
not complying, underwent a dreadful persecution ; and soon an edict 
was issued that the emperor's statue should be placed in the temple 
at Jerusalem. The effect upon the popular superstition was terrible : 
the people, in despair, left their occupations throughout the country, 
and offered their breasts to the Roman swords; and Petronius the 
praetor was so far moved as to suspend the execution of the decree 
until it was repealed by the interest of Agrippa. 

Meanwhile, in Babylonia, certain of the people revolting, terrible 
massacres had taken place, and the assassination of Caligula alone 
delivered the race from more grievous injuries. Claudius, succeed- 
ing him, appointed Agrippa king over all the dominions ruled by 
the first Herod. After a splendid reign of three years, he died, and 
^'Judea became once more a Roman province under a succession of 
prsetors. And now commenced that series of crimes and errors 
which led to the final destruction of the holy city. 

The people had become excessively corrupt and turbulent. Bands 
of assassins scoured the country : the fanatical populace was contin- 



48 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

ually embroiled witli the Koman soldiery; and Felix, the governor, 
in vain endeavoured to suppress the spirit of revolt. In Csesarea the 
most violent conflicts prevailed between the Greeks and Jews ; in 
Jerusalem the authority of Festus and Agrippa (the second), Eoman 
preetors, was set at naught. To Felix succeeded Albinus, a corrupt 
and avaricious man, and to him Gessius Florus, whose oppression 
and treachery were among the principal causes of the insurrection 
which followed. 

Some terrible phenomena, which appeared about this time, were 
supposed to portend calamitous events. A comet in the shape of a 
sword hung over the city for a whole year; the massive gates of 
the temple were thrown open, and a luminous appearance covered 
the altar ; and the evolutions of chariots and horsemen were seen in 
the heavens. A man filled with insanity, or the spirit of prophecy, 
for four years went about the city, crying "Wo to Jerusalem!" 
And the Christians, in obedience to the divine premonition, aban- 
doned Jesusalem in a body, and retreated to Pella beyond the Jordan. 

At this time, when the inhabitants of Judea amounted to about 
three millions, and vast numbers of Hebrews were settled in other 
countries, that fatal series of events commenced, which terminated 
in their entire destruction as a nation. The feud in Csesarea being 
renewed, and the Jews getting worsted, Florus took advantage of 
the discontent excited in Jerusalem, and committed a terrible massa- 
cre upon the people, hoping, in the event of a general insurrection, 
to plunder the temple of its vast treasures. Disappointed in this, 
and finding his position unsafe, he retired to Csesarea. 

By the prudent counsels of Agrippa, peace was well nigh restored, 
when a party of insurgents seized a small fortress near the Dead 
Sea, and put the Eoman garrison to the sword. A decree was 
further made in Jerusalem, prohibiting the Komans from sacrificing 
in the temple, which, as a piece of conciliatory policy, had always 
been done in the name of the emperor. This being an open 
declaration of hostilities, the more moderate citizens sent to Agrippa, 
entreating a force to preserve the peace. This having arrived, a 
contest commenced, which lasted with great desperation for seven 
days, at the end of which the insurgents, under Eleazer, gained the 
advantage. Afterwards, the remaining troops of Agrippa were 
suffered to leave the city, and the few Eomans who still held out, 
were massacred after capitulation. 

On that very day, however, a fresh misfortune awaited the Jews. 



THE JEWS. 



49 



The Grecian party in Ceesarea, bj previous agreement, rose suddenly, 
and in one liour destroyed them, almost to a man, to the number of 
twenty thousand. Maddened by this outrage, and perceiving them- 
selves fully committed against the Eomans by their own conduct in 
Jerusalem, the whole nation took up arms, and commenced an 
indiscriminate slaughter in all the cities on their borders. The 
Syrians and Greeks, in revenge, put to death great numbers of Jews 
residing in their nation. In Alexandria the Jewish populace, 
revolting, were cut off with prodigious slaughter, and fifty thousand 
dead bodies were heaped ujd for burial. 

Cestius Gallus, the Syrian governor, now marched against the 
revolted city, at the head of twenty -three thousand troops, and after 
meeting a severe reverse in the pass of Beth-horon, laid siege to the 
city. Naturally irresolute, and meeting a fierce resistance, after a 
few days, he raised the siege, and retired. His retreat, which soon 
became a flight, was harassed by the victorious insurgents, and he 
finally entered Antipatris, with the loss of nearly six thousand troops, 
and all his battering rams, catapults, and engines of war. These 
were afterwards used with dreadful effect against their former owners. 

After this defeat, the most disgraceful which Eoman arms had 
experienced for a long time, Judea was in open rebellion against the 
Mistress of the World. Undisciplined, entirely without allies, and 
opposed to a power which could command nearly all the forces in 
the known world, the Jewish nation made a defence which, if fierce 
and fanatical, was certainly the most daring, desperate, and patriotic 
that has ever been recorded in the annals of the earth. Naturally 
of a fierce and clannish nature, exasperated by great oppressions, 
and committed by great crimes, looking forward with confidence to 
the speedy coming of a Messiah, and relying on a renewal of ancient 
miracles in their behalf, the whole nation now prepared for a most 
determined resistance. 

The reduction of the revolted province had been entrusted by 
ISTero to Yespasian, the most distinguished commander in the empire, 
who immediately hastened to Syria to collect the Eoman forces and 
those of their tributaries. Eleazer, the leader of the first insurrec- 
tion, though not possessing nominal office, was in reality the chief 
leader of the Jews. Over the different districts, of&cers of trust 
and fidelity were appointed by the insurgents ; and over that of 
Gahlee in particular, Josephus, the celebrated historian of his 
people. In Jerusalem, preparations for war proceeded with great 
4 



50 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOPvY. 

energy; the walls were strengtlienecl, engines constructed, and 
stores laid in with great care and promptitude. They first attacked 
Antonius, the Eoman commander of Askelon, but were repulsed 
with great loss in two attempts, 

Vespasian advanced to Ptolemais, and was there joined by his 
son Titus, who had been despatched to Alexandria for reinforce- 
ments. Their united force amounted to sixty thousand regular 
troops, besides followers of the camp. They took up the line of 
march, but halted on the frontiers of Galilee, to give an opportunity 
for submission. The army of Josephus dispersed in every direction, 
and the Hebrew general threw himself, with all his available forces, 
into the strong city of Jotapata, situated among the mountains. 
For forty-seven days it resisted all the attacks of the Eomans, and 
the garrison, in their courageous sallies and sudden attacks, evinced 
all the bravery and adroitness which usually characterizes a race of 
mountaineers. After a most valorous defence it was taken, with a 
loss of forty thousand men during the siege and capture, and 
Josephus fell into the hands of the Eoman commander. He was 
received with great courtesy, and eventually obtained the fullest 
confidence of both Yespasian and Titus. The Eomans now retired 
to Csesarea, exhausted by the late terrible conflict, and destroyed 
Joppa, which was held by the revolted forces. Thence returning 
to Gralilee, and taking Tiberias, Yespasian made a terrible slaughter 
among the inhabitants after capitulation, sold more than thirty 
thousand as slaves, and sent six thousand to Nero, who was then 
engaged in a scheme for cutting a canal through the Isthmus of 
Corinth. The province, overawed, submitted; some citadels which 
yet held out were taken after obstinate resistance. In Gamala, 
especially, four thousand were put to the sword, and the bodies were 
found of five thousand who had cast themselves from the rock, on 
seeing the assault successful. 

Meanwhile, the unhappy city of Jerusalem was involved in all the 
horrors of a civil war. One faction, including the most respectable 
and wealthy, were for peace and submission ; the other, more des- 
perate, and fired with fanatical zeal, was determined to resist to the 
last. Immense numbers of the latter party, many of them robbers by 
profession, flocked into the city, and, under pretence of patriotism and 
religious enthusiasm, plundered, imprisoned, and murdered the more 
peaceable. These Zealots, as they were called, after a desperate 
conflict, took possession of the temple, an immense citadel, adapted 



THE JEWS. 



51 



either for worship or defence. Their leader was Eleazer. Besieged 
there, they sent for aid to the Idumeans, who came before the city 
to their assistance to the number of twenty thousand. Entrance 
being obtained for them by a stratagem, the Zealots with their new 
allies recommenced the contest, the temple was deluged with blood, 
and eight thousand five hundred bodies strewed its courts. Unsat- 
isfied with victory, they continued for a long time to massacre the 
people, and spared neither age nor innocence. The high-priests were 
slaughtered, and the most celebrated officers put to death. Vespa- 
sian, urged to march upon the city, replied, that such a step would 
at once unite the factions, and that he preferred allowing them, like 
wild beasts, to tear each other to pieces in their dens. He had now 
taken many of the cities, and on one occasion had slain or drowned 
in the Jordan fifteen thousand fugitives. The river and the Dead 
Sea itself had been almost choked with bodies. He was daily 
expected at the gates of Jerusalem, when news arrived of the death 
of Nero, and for two, years the Eoman kept his forces fresh and 
inactive, that he might profit by a favourable opportunity for seizing 
the empire. During this time Galba, Otho, and Yitellius had in turn 
gained and lost the imperial crown. The politic Vespasian at last 
attained the purple, and the command in Judea was delegated to 
his son, the celebrated Titus. 

During all this time, Jerusalem had been distracted by a civil war 
of the fiercest character. Two new factions had arisen, headed by 
Simon, son of Gioras, and by John of Gischala, who had played a 
conspicuous part in the commencement of the war. They were both 
men of remarkable bravery, craft, and ambition, and both utterly 
destitiite of scruples. Simon, who had long ravaged the country with 
a large force, was at last permitted to enter the city that he might 
protect it from the atrocities of the Zealots. The city was now the 
prey of three farioiis factions — that of Simon, in the upper city; 
John, with the Zealots, in the temple ; and Eleazer, with others, in 
the inner court. These alternately slaughtered each other and the 
defenceless citizens. Many were killed in worshipping at the sanc- 
tuary-; for, strange to say, amid all this havoc and violence, the cus- 
tomary rites were observed as usual. 

At last Titus with a great force once more approached the gates of 
Jerusalem, Hardly had he pitched his camp, before the besieged made 
a furious sally, and the commander was nearly taken by a surprise. 
The factions now perceived the necessity of making common cause 



52 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY 



against the enemy, and of burying their animosity for tlie present. 
By agreement they made a simultaneous attack on the tenth legion, 
which was stationed at the foot of the Mount of Olives. By the fierce- 
ness and suddenness of their onslaught, it was, at first, entirely roiited, 
and Titus himself exposed to the greatest danger; at length, rallying, 
after a contest of an entire day, the Eomans repulsed their enemies. 

It was now the Passover, and vast multitudes fi^om the most dis- 
tant regions, had entered the beleagured city to celebrate their most 
revered and important festival. This circumstance added gTcatly to 
the suffering and famine which ensued. Meanwhile, the Eomans, 
in forming military approaches, had laid waste all the surrounding 
country; but being enticed under the walls by a stratagem, were 
defeated with great loss. 

The city was, at that time, fortified by three walls, one within the 
other, strengthened by one hundred and sixty -four towers. More- 
over, there was a fortress of unusual strength, called the Antonia, 
and three towers built of such immense stones as to defy the engi- 
neering of the day. High over all rose the temple, an impregnable 
citadel in itself, covering a space of a furlong square, and its walls, 
the rock included, five hundred and twenty-five feet in height. This 
splendid structure, with its marble pillars and gilded roof, "a mount 
of snow, fretted with golden pinnacles," excited the admiration of 
Titus, and a regret at the necessity of destroying so much magnificence. 

The approaches to the city were at last perfected, and the huge 
engines, called Helipoleis (city takers), began to shake the outer wall 
in three different places. The most furious resistance was made 
by the besieged, now united in a common defence. They made des- 
perate sallies, and often nearly succeeded in destroying the machines. 
On one occasion these were fired by the insurgents, and would have 
been destroyed, but for the bravery of Titus, who killed twelve of 
the assailants with his own hand. At last the great engine, called 
Nico (the conqueror), threw down a portion of the outer wall. The 
garrison retreated to the next, and still fought with desperate valour. 
In five days more, the second fell, and Titus entered the suburbs, 
sparing the lives and property of the peaceable citizens. . By a fierce 
sortie, the Eomans were again driven from their position, which they 
could not regain for fou.r days, when they threw down a large por- 
tion of the wall. The temple, the hill of Zion, and the impregnable 
forts, still defied the invader; and the Jews now plied with tremen- 
dous effect the balistas and other engines taken from Cestius in his 




I ^tvv^^l ^o- 



THE DESTRUCTION OE JERUSALEM. 



"While the Holy Houae was on fire, every thing was plundered that came 
to hand, and ten thousand of those that were caught were slain ; nor -was 
there a commisseration of any age or any reverence of gravity, hut children 
and old men, and profane persons, and priests, "were all slain, in the same 
manner — as well those that made supplication for their lives, as those that 
defended themselves hy fighting." — Whiston's Josephus. 



THE JEWS. 53 

fliglit. They scoffed at tlie idea of surrender, and offered violence 
to all Avho came to parley. Famine had now commenced, and many 
of the vast multitude pent up in the city were dying with hunger. 
Many others fled with all the wealth they could carry, and Titus 
allowed them to pass unmolested, though John and Simon put to 
death without mercy all who seemed desirous to fly. Their soldiers 
used the most cruel tortures to compel all who had a little provision 
to yield it up ; and all natural affection seemed lost and absorbed in 
this dreadful calamity. Titus was now crucif)dng all his prisoners, 
sometimes to the number of five hundred in a da}^, and this added 
to the rage and desperation of the besieged. After seventeen days 
of great labour, the embankments had befen made, and the engines 
mounted for an attack, when the whole Avere seen to sink into a fiery 
abyss, and be consumed. John had undermined the whole, filled his 
cavern Avith combustibles, and set fire to the wooden supports. Two 
days after, Simon with a croAvd of his partisans, made an attack on 
the remaining engines, and after a most furious conflict, burnt nearly 
all of them. 

It Avas then decided to blockade the city, and starve the garrison 
into a surrender. In three days, working with incredible diligence, 
the besiegers had, in the inspired Avords of prophecy, "cast a trench 
about them, and compassed them round, and kept them in on every 
side." Well might they noAV recall, too, the terrible denunciations 
of Moses in his djdng prophecy: "The Lord shall bring a nation 
against thee from far," "a nation of fierce countenance, which shall 
not regard the person of the old, nor shoAV favour to the young." 
'• And he shall besiege thee in all thy gates, until thy high and fenced 
Avails come do Avn." "The tender and delicate Avoman among you, 
which would not adventure to set the sole of her foot upon the ground 
for delicateness and tenderness, her eye shall be evil toward the hus- 
band of her bosom, and tOAvard her son, and toward her daughter, 
and toAvard her children Avhich she shall bear : for she shall eat them 
for Avant of all things, secretly in the siege and straitness wherewith 
thine enemies shall distress thee in thy gates" — a prophecy Avhich 
Avas now fearfully realized. Half the city was dying of starvation, or 
resorting to the hideous resource of cannibalism. Many died with 
their eyes fixed on the temple to the last, and others crept to ceme- 
teries, and there laid their OAvn corpses. Without, the ravines were 
filled with dead bodies throAvn fi-om the Avails; Avithin, the city, 
strcAvn with unburied corpses, reeked like a vast sepulchre. 



54 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF 11 IS TO EY. 

Still the enfeebled garrison maintained an unfailing resolution. 
Matthias tlie high-priest, and others suspected of favouring the 
Romans, were slain in their sight, and their bodies tumbled from the 
walls. The insurgent chiefs melted the sacred vessels of the temple, 
and served out the sacred oil and wine as rations to the famished 
defenders. A fresh horror was soon added. Many deserters, escaping 
to the Roman camp, had swallowed their treasures to preserve them ; 
and this fact coming to the knowledge of the fierce Syrian and 
Arabian allies, they commenced a horrible course of murder and 
dissection: two thousand Jews are said to have thus perished in a 
single night. "With the greatest difficulty Titus put a stop to this 
atrocity. 

At length, after stripping the whole country of its woods, the 
approaches were renewed, and the tall engines once more stood 
menacing the walls. Both parties were almost exhausted by the long 
contest, but especially the Jews, who had also famine to contend 
against. The wall fell, but another was discovered within. An 
attack of the enfeebled defenders was repulsed ; and during the night 
a few resolute Romans, taking the enemy by surprise, stormed the 
wall. A day of hard fighting left the besiegers in possession of the 
strong fortress Antonia. Another fierce attack was made in vain 
upon the temple, now slippery with blood, and encumbered with 
corpses. At no time had the Jews fought with more desperate and 
unwearied courage than now, when outnumbered, famine-stricken, 
and reduced to the last extremity. 

The cloisters of the temple were set on fire, and their destruction 
enabled the Romans to penetrate to the outer court, where their 
engines soon began to batter the stronghold. Repulsed by the fury 
of its defenders, Titus set fire to the gates, and enough was destroyed 
to allow the Romans to enter. A most terrible encounter ensued in 
the temple itself, and despite the desire of Titus to save this mag- 
nificent building, it was fired by his enraged soldiery. Multitudes 
perished in the flames and by the sword, and the plunder was so 
great, that gold fell in Syria to half its former value. 

John and Simon still held out in the upper city, seized the palace, 
and massacred eight thousand four hundred people who had taken 
refuge there. After eighteen days the Romans took it, almost with- 
out a struggle, and the leaders, on surrender, were reserved for the 
triumph of Vespasian and Titus. More than one hundred thousand 
of the inhabitants were sold as slaves, and the city was razed to the 



THE JEWS. 



55 



ground Ly command of Titus. The number who had perished was 
prodigious; for vast multitudes from the adjoining regions had been 
shut wp at the time of the Passover. It has been calculated that one 
million one hundred thousand lost their lives in this most calamitous 
of sieges, and including those slain elsewhere, half Judea may be said 
to have perished. 

" Thus fell, and for ever, the metropolis of the Jewish state. Other- 
cities have arisen upon the ruins of Jerusalem, and succeeded, as it 
were, to the inalienable inheritance of perpetual siege, oppression, and 
ruin. Jerusalem might almost seem to be a place imder a perpetual 
curse; it has probably witnessed a far greater portion of human 
misery than any other spot upon the earth." 

Here, too, ends the history of the Chosen People as a distinct nation 
• — a distinct race they have ever been, though scattered widely 
throughout almost every nation on earth. And we are again reminded 
of the striking language of their great law-giver: "Thou shalt become 
an astonishment, a proverb and a by- word among all nations whither 
the Lord shall lead thee." "And the Lord shall scatter thee among 
all people, from the one end of the earth even unto the other." "And 
among these nations shalt thou find no ease, neither shall the sole 
of thy foot have rest : but the Lord shall give thee a trembling heart, 
«and failing of eyes, and sorrow of mind. And thy life shall hang in 
doubt before thee ; and thou shalt fear day and night, and shalt have 
none assurance of thy life." i 

These remarkable words describe the condition of the Jewish people 
since the destruction of their national existence as accurately as any 
which could be used. Despised, oppressed, and wantonly murdered 
for nearly two thousand years, they have still maintained, imshaken, 
their laws and customs, their theology, and their firm belief in a 
Messiah yet to appear for their deliverance. 

To the disgrace of nations calling themselves Christian, this scat- 
tered and defenceless people has sustained, till recently, the most 
unrelenting persecution at their hands. Wanton outrages, cruel tor- 
tures, degrading and oppressive impositions, have characterized their 
treatment' throughout the world. But since mankind have learned 
to think more justly and rationally on matters of mere belief, the 
spirit of persecution has gradually died away, and now appears in 
its worst form only in some of the half-civilized nations of the 
East — as Russia, Syria, and some Mahometan provinces. 

By their industry, acuteness, and strong commercial spirit, the 



56 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

Jewisli strangers generally attain prosperity whenever free from 
outrage and spoliation, and among their number have been found the 
most eminent bankers and financiers. Whatever may be thought of 
their belief, it will be generally admitted that they are useful members 
of most communities which they enter. Perhaps, with the ceasing of 
that persecution which is one of the strongest incentives to obstinacy, 
they may gradually adopt a more rational belief, and become amal- 
gamated with the nations in which they are settled. But at present 
they remain, throughout the world, a race as separate and distinct 
from all others, as that which followed Moses into the wilderness, 
or rebuilt their temple after the captivity of Babylon. 



ASSYRIA. 



U dJi dX if i oil si io 

ANCIENT HISTORY OP ASSYRIA: 

Assyria lias always been considered as tlie most ancient nation 
of which we have any authentic history. It was founded not long 
after that dispersion of mankind which succeeded the Deluge. We 
read in Grenesis that out of the land of Shinar "went forth Asshur," 
(the second son of Shem,) "and builded Nineveh, and the city Reho- 
both, and Calah." About the same time Nimrod, the grandson of 
Ham, built the city of Babylon, and founded Babylonia. "And 
the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech and Accad, 
and Calneh, in the land of Shinar." We are further told that he 
"began to be a mighty man upon the earth," and "a mighty hunter 
before the Lord." The chase has ever been held the fittest school 
for war, and accordingly, we find Nimrod a hunter, a warrior, and 
a king. He was probably the first who assumed the title of a 
monarch, and entered on a career of conquest for the sake of 
enlarging his territories. 

At the end of about one hundred and twenty years, ISTinus, the sov- 
ereign of Assyria, to whom the Babylonians had become tributary, 
deposed JSTarbonius, their king, and united the two nations, which 
henceforth we are to regard as one — the Assyrian empire. This 
monarch, it is related, extended his conquests from Egypt to India. 

Semiramis, his widow, who at his death assumed the government, 
is the most celebrated name in Assyrian history: she was alike dis- 
tinguished for her beauty, her talents, and her vices. Of obscure 



58 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

parentage, and married to Menones, an officer, slie attracted the 
notice of the king. Her husband, despairing before such a rival, 
killed himself, on which Ninus espoused her, and at his death left 
her on the throne of his widely-extended empire. 

Having removed the seat of government from Nineveh to Babylon, 
she made the latter, by the grandeur of her improvements, the most 
magnificient city on the earth. It is difficult to credit all that 
ancient writers have told concerning these wonders of architecture ; 
but it seems certain that the city was decorated with the most splen- 
did structures, both for use and ornament: bridges, palaces, and 
temples; walls upon which three chariots might drive abreast, and 
vast forests suspended at an immense height in the air. These were 
the celebrated "hanging gardens," which she is said to have con- 
structed for the purpose of reminding her of the mountainous 
scenes amid which her youth had been passed. 

Eestless without excitement, she engaged in war; conquered 
Lybia and the greater part of Ethiopia, and finally led an immense 
army to attempt the conquest of India. Crossing the Indiis on a 
bridge of boats, after a fiercely-disputed passage, she advanced a 
considerable distance into the country. Being at last defeated with 
great slaughter by Stabrobates, a king of India, she retreated home- 
ward by forced marches, leaving the greater part of her numerous 
legions 

" To dry into the desert's dust by myriads, 
And whiten with their bones the banks of Indus." 

The private vices and licentiousness imputed to Semiramis by 
some historians, are too enormous to be entirely credited; it would 
appear, however, that she lived in the utmost luxury and profligacy, 
and was finally put to death by Ninyas, her son, who availed him- 
self of these causes to hasten his accession to the throne. 

Ninyas appears to have been a prince of an easy and dissolute 
temperament, and devoted to sloth and voluptuousness. He lived 
entirely secluded within the walls of his seraglio, securing the fidel- 
ity of his forces by a yearly change of the soldiers, lest they should 
be gained over by ambitious officers. 

From this time, with few and unimportant exceptions, we lose 
sight of Assyrian history for a period of more than eight hundred 
years. Ctesias, a physician of Cnidos, who accompanied Cyrus the 
Younger, and wrote about B. 0. 399, gives, it is true, a long list of 



ASSYEIA. 59 

Babylonian monarclis, who are said to have ruled in regular succes- 
sion. But this account is usually considered to be, for the most 
part, fallacious, bearing internal evidence of its incorrectness. It 
seems probable that many revolutions and changes of power must 
have taken place, so as to efface the records of the ancient dynasty. 
It is certain that during this period the country was overrun by 
Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, but that the conquest was not 
retained for any great leng-th of time. 

At last, about eight hundred years before Christ, we again gain 
sight of an Assyrian monarch, in the person of Pul or Phul, by 
whom the Israelites were subdued and made tributary, in the reign 
of Menahem. Some have supposed that this Pul was the king of 
Nineveh, who, with his people, repented at the preaching of Jonah. 

The account in Scripture of this occurrence is very beautiful and 
pathetic. We are told that the wickedness of Nineveh had arisen 
before the Lord, and that he commanded his prophet to go and 
warn the inhabitants: "Arise, go to Nineveh, that great city, and 
cry against it ; for their wickedness is come up before me." — Jonah, 
whose disposition seems to have been timid and irresolute, endeav- 
oured to escape the will of God by embarking on a long voyage. 
He set sail from Joppa, the most ancient of sea-ports, in a vessel 
bound for Ta];shish, a city supposed to have been the celebrated 
Carthage. Being miraculously compelled to return, he journeyed 
to Nineveh, and approaching it, cried: "Yet forty days, and Nine- 
veh shall be overthrown." — The king and his people believed, and 
signalized their repentance, not only by the customary tokens of 
"sack cloth and ashes" and fasting, but by a sincere and humble 
reformation. "And God saw their works, that they turned from 
their evil ways ; and God repented of the evil that he had said that 
he would do unto them, and he did it not." But Jonah, valuing 
his reputation as a prophet more than the divine and merciful will, 
which had spared the city, was "displeased exceedingly," and "very 
angry." He remonstrated with his Maker; and going out of the 
city, sat sullenly under a booth which he had constructed, "till he 
might see what would become of the city." His ill-regulated pas- 
sions probably made him desirous of witnessing its destruction. But 
the Lord, typifying the vakie of his creatures by the grief which 
Jonah manifested at the loss of a perishable gourd, gently rebuked 
his hardness of heart: "Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for the 
which thou hast not laboured, neither madest it grow. And should 



60 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



not I spare JSTineveli, tliat great citj, wlierein are more tlian six 
score thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand 
and their left, and also much cattle ? ' ' 

Sardanapalus, supposed by some to have been the son of Pul, 
appears to have been the last ruler of the Assyrian empire who 
inherited its wide possessions in their full extent. He was of an 
effeminate and dissolute disposition, entirely immersed in sensual 
pleasures. His time was usually passed among his women, whom 
he imitated in their dress and amusements, and whom he is even 
said to have joined in spinning with the distaff. Placing the sover- 
eign good in ease and pleasure, he is reported to have inscribed 
upon two cities which he had built, the following inscription, as 
versified by a modern poet: 

* * * "Sardanapalus ■ 

The ]dng, and son of Anacyndaraxes, 

In one day built Anchialus and Tarsus. 

Eat, drink, and love the rest's not worth a fillip." 

At last, about the year 767 B. C, an insurrection broke out, 
headed by Arbaces, the governor of the Medes, and Belesis, an 
eminent priest and astrologer. Aroused by this emergency from 
his effeminate life, Sardanapalus defended his throne with great 
bravery, and evinced a kingly courage and magnanimity. Being 
gradually overpowered by the insurgents, he retreated to Babylon, 
his capital, resolved to defend it to the last extremity. He was the 
more encouraged in this, because an oracle had declared that the city 
should never be overthrown, until the river should become its 
enemy. He held out against the besieging armies for some time, 
until the river Euphrates, which washed the walls of Babylon, rose 
in a great inundation. By undermining their foundations, it threw 
down a vast extent of the ramparts, for a distance of twenty stadia, 
or two and a half miles. Seeing all farther resistance useless, he 
constructed an immense funeral pile within the palace, and con- 
sumed thereon his treasures, his women, and himself: 

* * "In this blazing palace, 

And its enormous walls of reeking ruin. 

We leave a nobler monument than Egypt 

Hath piled in her brick mountains o'er dead kings." 

After the death of Sardanapalus, his dominions were separated 
into three kingdoms, the Medes retaining their independence, and 




"%. 












THE FUNERAL PYRE OF bARDANAPALUS 



A S S Y E I A , 



6i 



Assyria Proper being divided between the kingdoms of Nineveli 
and Babylon. This last, however, remained an independent nation 
for only seventy years, being conquered and annexed to that of 
Nineveh by Esarhaddon. 

The history of the Assyrian empire, from the time of its separation, 
is intimately connected with that of the Hebrews, and we are indebted 
to the Bible for the greater part of our knowledge concerning it. 

The first ruler of the new kingdom of Nineveh was Tigiath-Pileser, 
who is recorded in the Book of Kings as having taken many cities 
of the Hebrews, and carried their inhabitants in captivity to Assyria. 
We also read that Ahaz, king of Judah, being besieged at Jerusalem 
by the Syrians and Israelites, entreated assistance of him, and sent 
as a propitiatory offering the sacred vessels of gold and silver from the 
temple. Being freed from his enemies by the aid of the Assyrian, 
he joined in his idolatries. 

We next find that Shalmaneser, his successor, made Hoshea, king 
of Israel, tributary to him, and finally carried the Israelites into 
captivity. He pursued a frequent policy of conquerors, distributing 
his prisoners among various provinces of Assyria, and supplying 
their places in Samaria by colonists of his oavu people. 

Senacherib, who next succeeded to the throne, attacked and took 
possession of the fortified cities of Judah, in the reign of Hezekiah, 
son of Ahaz. The defeated prince humbled himself before the 
invader, and sacrificed all his own treasures and those of the temple 
to secure a peace. It was not long, however, before the Assyrians 
sent a fresh army against Jerusalem. The king and his people, des- 
pairing of succour, were encouraged by the prophet Isaiah, who fore- 
told the destruction of their enemies. Accordingly, a vast number 
of the Assyrian host perished in their camp that same night, smitten 
by an imseen and mysterious hand. 

"For the Angel of Death spread his wings to the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed; 
And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, 
And their hearts but once heaved, and for ever were still." 

Senacherib returned discomfited to Nineveh, and while worship- 
ping "in the house of Nisroch, his god," was murdered by Adram- 
elech and Sharezer his sons. They escaped into Armenia, and 
Esarhaddon, another of his sons, reigned in his stead. This prince 
subdued Babylon, and added it to his own dominions, about 680 B. C. 



Q2 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Next, and about one hundred years afterwards, we find Nebucli- 
adnezzar, one of his successors, frequently mentioned in the inspired 
writings. He conquered Syria, Egypt, Palestine, and other nations, 
and appears to have been the most powerful monarch of his age. 
Connected with the captivity of the Jews, appear some of the most 
striking incidents of his reign : His dream and its interpretation by 
Daniel, the miraculous preservation of the three Hebrews, and finally 
his own pride, his degradation to the condition of a beast, and his 
final conversion. 

Belshazzar, (sometimes called Evil-Merodach,) his son and succes- 
sor, released the king of Judah from prison, and restored him to 
his kingdom. On the occasion of his marriage to Nitocris, a Median, 
he incurred the enmity of her nation, with which he was thencefor- 
ward at war. After experiencing defeat and adversity, he met a 
tragic end. Unwarned by the fate and humiliation of his father, he 
presumptuously despised the power of which he had seen such won- 
derful evidences. "And Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a 
thousand of his lords," and while drinking, in the pride of his heart, 
commanded that the sacred vessels taken from Jerusalem should be 
brought in for their use. A hand appeared, and wrote four words 
in an unknown character: "and the king saw the part of the hand 
that wrote." Greatly troubled, he sought in vain for an interpretation 
from the Chaldeans and soothsayers, but could obtain none. Resort- 
ing to the prophet Daniel, the meaning of the mysterious symbols 
was unfolded to him : that his kingdom was numbered and finished 
by Grod ; that he was weighed in the balance, and found wanting ; and 
that his kingdom was divided, and given to the Medes and Persians. 
In the same night he fell a victim to the conspiracy of his nobles, one 
of whom, Darius the Median, took possession of the kingdom. 

The usurping monarch was killed, some time afterwards, in a bat- 
tle with the Persians. His son, after a reign of nine months, was 
murdered by Nabonadius, a son of Belshazzar and Nitocris, who 
assumed the throne. After reigning seventeen j^ears, he was besieged 
by the Great Cyrus in Babylon. Having provision for twenty years, 
his confidence was unbounded. The besiegers passed two years 
before the walls, and were beginning to despair, when a great festival 
arrived, which the Babylonians were accustomed to spend in drinking 
and revelry. Taking advantage of their security, Cyrus diverted the 
river from its course, and entered the city in its dried-up channel. 
Nabcnadius was slain, and the city submitted to the conqueror. 



ASSYEIA, 



63 



Thus ended the Assyrian empire, about tlie year B. C. 536, and 
thus were fulfilled the prophecies long before uttered by Isaiah and 
other inspired writers of the Hebrews. 



MODERN DISCOVERIES; 

Much interest has lately been excited by the discoveries of Mr. 
Layard, the enterprising explorer of Assyrian antiquities. The 
most remarkable results have rewarded his sagacious and perse- 
vering researches. Along the Tigris, for many miles, lie a succession 
of vast mounds, which have long been considered as the remains of 
the mighty city of Nineveh. So great is the extent of these ruins 
that it renders intelligible the account of the prophet Jonah, who 
proceeded "into the city a day's journey '' before commencing his 
fearful mission. 

At Kouyemjik and at Nimroud, (whose very name seems to recall 
the founder of the Assyrian empire,) the most interesting discoveries 
repaid the zeal of the antiquarian. At the latter place, the remains 
of a dam, built of heavy masonry, still obstruct the river, and the 
tradition of the natives still ascribes its construction to Nimrod. 
Having commenced his excavations, the labours of Mr. Layard were 
soon rewarded by the discovery and exhumation of an enormous 
winged lion, with a human head, sculptured in alabaster. " It was 
in admirable preservation. The expression was calm, yet majestic, 
and the outline of the features showed a freedom and knowledge of 
art scarcely to be looked for in the works of so remote a period." 
"I was not surprised that the Arabs had been amazed and terrified 
at this apparition. It required no stretch of imagination to conjure 
up the the most strange fancies. This gigantic head, blanched with 
age, thus rising from the bowels of the earth, might well have 
belonged to one of those fearful beings which are pictured in the 
traditions of the country as appearing to mortals, slowly ascending 
from the regions below." 



64: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

As tlie work was steadily pursued, twentj-eiglit lialls and gal- 
leries, filled with the wonderful remains of this strange species of 
civilization, were gradually brought to light. The discoverer was 
soon able "to behold chamber after chamber, hall after hall, unfold 
themselves, as it were, from the bosom of the earth, and assume 
shape, dimensions, height; to watch the reliefs which line the walls 
gradually disclosing their forms. As the rubbish cleared away, the 
siege and the battle and the hunting-piece becoming more and more 
distinct ; and the king wearing more manifestly his lofty tiara, and 
displaying his undoubted symbol of royalty; the attitude of the 
priest proclaiming his office, sometimes his form and features, his 
imperfect and effeminate manhood; the walls of the besieged cities 
rearing their battlements, the combatants grappling in mortal strug- 
gle; the horses curveting; the long procession stretching out, slab 
after slab, with the trophies of victory or the offerings of devotion; 
above all, the huge symbolic animals, the bulls or lions, sometimes 
slowly struggling into light in their natural forms, sometimes develop- 
ing their human heads, their outspread wings; their downward 
parts — in their gigantic but just proportions — heaving off, as it 
might seem, the encumbering earth." — Many of the walls were 
painted in dazzling colours, and every where statues, reliefs, and 
symbolic ornaments met the eye. The entire construction and 
arrangement of an ancient Assyrian palace were disclosed. "Three 
great edifices of different periods, adorned by sculptures of different 
characters — one at the north-western corner, one in the centre, and 
one to the south-east — ^revealed to the light of day the Nineveh 
perhaps of Ninus and Semiramis, of Shalmaneser and Senacherib, 
of Esarhaddon and Sardanapalus." 

Many curious and elaborately-carved ornaments of ivory were 
found in a tolerable state of preservation, and, by a peculiar pro- 
cess, were restored to their former condition. Long inscriptions, 
explanatory of the various events recorded in stone, have been 
carefully copied, and engage the attention of antiquarians. The list 
of a succession of kings has been detected by Mr. Layard; and in 
his more recent excavation, a chamber has been discovered, in 
which tablets of terra cotta, covered with inscriptions, were jDiled in 
great numbers. It is confidently hoped, that the history of a large 
portion of mankind, which for many ages had apparently perished, 
may thus be recovered, and especially that the great chasm in Assy- 
rian events, which has so long puzzled historians, may be filled up. 



ASSYEIA. 



65 



A most remarkable correspondence has been discovered between 
tliese sculptured representations and tbose on the monuments of 
Egypt, so long the only rival capable of competing with Assyria. 
In each, the battles, spoils, and trophies from foreign nations, are 
minutely represented. In each may be found sculptured the pre- 
sentation of heads to the victorious monarch, and a scribe carefully 
enrolling the number. 

Apparently the most ancient monument yet discovered in Nine- 
veh, is an obelisk of black marble, on which are sculptured figures 
of the elephant, the rhinoceros, and a tribe of monkeys; thus 
forcibly carrying back the mind to the time of Semiramis, and to 
her Eastern trophies, or perhaps those of her successors. 

The vast mounds from which these and many other objects of 
interest have been rescued, are composed of the decayed masses of 
brick which formed the principal building material of the city. In 
these "mountains of brick rubbish" lie whelmed the walls, the 
palaces, and the hanging-gardens which once reared themselves so 
splendidly on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. 

The present inhabitants of this once renowned region, are mostly 
ignorant Arabs, governed by their almost equally ignorant and 
bigoted masters,- the Turks, Every obstacle (probably with a view 
to extortion) was at first placed in the way of the enterprising dis- 
coverer. At one time his proceedings were stopped, by order of 
the pasha, under pretext that he was disturbing, by his excavations, 
the tombs of the "true believers." The appearance of a cem- 
etery was certainly found, but, as it proved, constructed by the 
orders of the wily governor himself "Daoud Agha," says Mr. 
Layard, "confessed to me on our way that he had received orders to 
make graves on the mound, and that his troops had been employed 
for two nights in bringing stones from distant villages for that pur- 
pose. 'We have destroyed more real tombs of the true believers,' 
said he, 'in making sham ones, than you could have defiled between 
the Zab and Selamiyah. We have killed our horses and ourselves 
in carrying those accursed stones.' " 

The native tribes exhibited the greatest awe and superstition on 
beholding the evidences of the power and religion of their myste- 
rious predecessors. Some ran away in alarm, and others were 
struck with a pious horror at the monstrous images. "When they 
beheld the head, they all criod together: 'There is no God but 
God, and Mahomet is his prophet ! ' It was some time before the 
5 



6Q 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOET. 



slieik could be prevailed ■upon to descend into the pit, and convince 
Hmself that the image he saw was of stone. ' This is not the work 
of men's hands,' exclaimed he, 'but of those infidel giants of whom 
the prophet — peace be with him ! — has said that they were higher 
than the tallest date-tree; this is one of the idols which ISToah — ■ 
peace be with him!' — cursed before the flood.' In this opinion, 
the result of a careful examination, all the bystanders concurred." 

These discoveries, so splendidly commenced, and still progressing 
with much encouragement, will probably form a most important 
epoch in our knowledge of antiquities. The names and achieve- 
ments which we have been accustomed to receive as doubtful or 
fabulous, may be confirmed as authentic, or superseded by others 
more real and more satisfactory. The numerous inscriptions and 
records, if deciphered by a skill like that of ChampoUion, may yet 
open to us a page of history, which for some thousands of years 
has been entirely hidden from the world. 



EGYPT. 



ANCIENT HISTORY OP EGYPT. 

No nation has bequeathed to mankina more gigantic remains of 
former grandeur and civilization than Egypt ; none has been more 
solicitous for the commemoration of her conquests and achieve- 
ments ; and the early history of none is more utterly obscure and 
perplexed. Mythological and human personages are so confounded 
in her primitive narrations, that the antiquarian turns for safer infor- 
mation to the strange characters and emblems sculptured on her 
palaces and obelisks; and these, being partially deciphered, have 
thrown some light upon the doubtful relations of early historians. 

The first authentic name which occurs in the records of Egyptian 
polity, is that of Menes, a monarch who reigned about B. C. 2200 
or 2400. It is related that he turned the course of the Nile, near 
the site of Memphis, and led it to the sea, through the centre of 
the valley. He is farther said to have invaded the neighbouring 
countries in a warlike manner, and finally to have been destroyed 
by a hippopotamus. 

The next and most important event in the early affairs of Egypt 
is her invasion and conquest by a wandering race fi:om the east; 
usually called the Invasion of the Shepherd Kings. Menes and his 
successors had ruled for two hundred and fifty-three years, when, in 
the reign of Timaus, the last of his dynasty, these strangers ravaged 
the country, demolished the temples, and reduced the people to 
slavery. They appointed as king, Salatis, one of their leaders, and 
he resided in Memphis. He strongly garrisoned the whole region, 
especially the east, where he fortified the city of Abaris, and filled 



58 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

it witti two hundred and forty thousand soldiers. During the new 
dynasty, whicli lasted for two hundred and sixty years, the first 
pyramid was begun (about B. 0. 2095), and the visit of Abraham to 
Egypt occurred (about B. C. 2077). The conquerors were perpetu- 
ally engaged in war with their new subjects, and treated them with 
oppressive cruelty. The enormous structures which still raise their 
peaks along the Nile, are supposed to have been mostly erected by 
the compulsory labour of the enslaved inhabitants. 

At length, (about B. C. 1899,) the native princes revolted, and, 
after a long contest, expelled their invaders. Besieged in Abaris, 
(afterwards Pelusium,) the remaining foreigners, with their house- 
holds, in all about two hundred and forty thousand, were at last 
allowed to depart, and, emigrating to Judea, there settled and built 
Jerusalem. 

This event, related by Manetho, has been by some confounded 
with the Exodus (emigration) of the Hebrews ; but the best authori- 
ties suppose that the Philistines were the descendants of this expelled 
people, and derive the term Pali-stan (Shepherd-land) from the 
nomadic race which founded it. The hatred still felt by the native 
Egyptians toward shepherds in the time of Joseph, tends strongly to 
prove that their subjugation and the expulsion of their conquerors 
occurred before his day.* This fact is in some degree confirmed 
by the statement of Herodotus, who says that the Egyptians of his 
time ascribed the building of the pyramids to one Philitis, a shep- 
herd, whose name was held by them in utter abhorrence. 

During the next native dynasty, which lasted for two hundred 
and fifty-one years, occurred the migration of the flebrews to 
Egypt, and their settlement in Goshen (B. 0. 1863). The beautiful 
and romantic account of their adventures belongs rather to their 
own history than to that of Egypt. The genius and policy of 
Joseph introduced great changes in the relative condition of the 
people and their monarchs ; and with his administration of affairs 
commenced that entire subserviency of the inhabitants, and that 
royal monopoly of lands, which have usually prevailed, and which 
exists at the present day, in their most odious forms. Their depart- 
ure occurred B. C. 1648. Pharaoh, it may be remarked, was a 
common name of the Egyptian kings, being bestowed in somewhat 
the same manner as the title of Caesar upon the Eoman emperors. 

* "Ever}'' shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians." — Genesis xlvi. 34. 



EGYPT. 



69 



A long list of sovereigns filled the throne, of whom little is 
known except their names. B. C. 1327 commenced the reign of 
Moeris, famed for the excavation of the celebrated lake, which still 
bears his name. His son, the renowned conqueror, Sesostris, suc- 
ceeded him. The exploits and conquests ascribed to this sovereign, 
like those of early periods in general, are dovibtless exaggerated 
and incorrectly related. Under the names of Sesostris, Ozymandias, 
and Eameses, he was regarded by the Egyptians as the founder of 
their mightiest edifices, and the hero of their most famous exploits. 
His real achievements were sufficiently great. He subdued the 
Abyssinians, and rendered them tributary. Turning his arms 
toward Asia, he conquered the Assyrians and Medes; thence pass- 
ing to the boundaries of Europe, he made war upon the Scythians, 
and finally returned to his kingdom, after an expedition which had 
lasted nine years. The pillars which he erected to commemorate 
his various conquests were long afterwards to be seen in Palestine, 
Arabia, and Ethiopia, bearing the haughty inscription: 

"sesostris, king of kings, and lord of lords, 

SUBDUED this COUNTRY BY HIS ARMS." 



The immense treasures, and the multitude of captives gained by 
his successes enabled him to commemorate them by the most splendid 
structures and moniiments. He built or greatly adorned the mighty 
cities of Memphis and Thebes. The former, situated amid the over- 
flowing of the Nile, and plundered of its materials by successive 
conquerors, has almost entirely disappeared; but the latter still 
stands upon the banks of the river, and its majestic ruins, the most 
wonderful in the world, excite the awe and admiration of all behold- 
ers. No nation has ever rivalled the grandeur or magnitude of these 
ancient temples and palaces, which appear, says Belzoni, to have 
been built by the hands and for the residences of a race of giants. 

For several centuries after the reign of this renowned sovereign, 
we find nothing very memorable in the history of Egypt. About 
B. C. 770, Anysis was expelled from the throne by Sabaco, an Ethi- 
opian, who descended the Nile. Sixty years afterwards, Senacherib, 
king of Assyria, prepared an immense host for the conquest of 
Judea, and the invasion of Egypt ; but it was destroyed in a single 
night by some unknown pestilence. 

In 619 B. C. Pharaoh Necho ascended the throne. His reign was 



70 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOliY. 

memorable for the taking of Jerusalem by bis forces in the reign 
of Josiali, and for tbe attention wliich be bestowed on navigation 
and discovery. He attempted fruitlessly to connect tbe Nile witb 
tbe Ked Sea — an enterprise wbicb bas engaged tbe attention of suc- 
cessive sovereigns of Egypt. Under bis direction an expedition 
was fitted out, wbicb performed a task, wonderful indeed for tbe 
age ; tbe circumnavigation of Africa. It was absent for tliree years, 
and tbe adventurers made as many settlements on tbe coast for tbe 
purpose of raising grain for tbeir support. Tbe circumstance wbicb 
caused Herodotus to doubt tbe trutb of tbis relation, is tbe strongest 
proof of its autbenticity — tbat tbe mid-day sun was observed by 
tbe mariners to be upon tbeir rigbt band, or to tbe nortbward. 

Tbe Assyrian empire bad long been formidable to its neigbbours ; 
Egypt was repeatedly menaced witb invasion; and at last, B. 0. 
535, Cyrus tbe Grreat, wbo by conquest or inberitance commanded 
nearly all tbe East, overran and subjugated tbe wbole country; 
allowing it, bowever, tbe form of an independent government. 

Ten years afterwards, tbe people revolting, Cambyses, bis succes- 
sor, witb a great army, marcbed upon Pelusium; and placing tbe 
sacred animals of Egypt in front of bis ranks, took tbe city, unmo- 
lested by tbe superstitious garrison. He sbortly after reduced 
Mempbis, and slaughtered two thousand of tbe first inhabitants. 
He outraged tbe religious feeling of the wbole nation by slaying 
tbe biill Apis, tbe object of tbeir universal adoration. He also 
threw down and destroyed some of tbe most splendid monuments 
in Thebes and elsewhere. 

The government of Persia was maintained more than two hun- 
dred years. A series of revolts were successfully repressed, in turn, 
by Xerxes, Artaxerxes and Ochus. During tbis period, Egypt 
was visited by tbe celebrated historian Herodotus, to whom we 
are. indebted for so many important particulars in its history and 
customs, B. C. 448. 

In the year B. C. 332, it was added to bis other conquests by 
Alexander, wbo built tbe splendid city which yet bears his name ; 
and at bis death, was allotted to Ptolemy Lagus, one of his generals, 
who assumed the crown, under tbe title of Soter. He founded tbe 
famous Alexandrian Library, and was distinguished for his love of 
letters, and bis patronage of philosophers. He turned bis acquire- 
ments to practical account, promoting the knowledge of medicine, 
geometry, history, and other useful sciences. 



EGYPT. 



71 



Pliiladelplius, his son, wlio succeeded, during a reign of thirty- 
eight years, executed many works of public utility — canals, aque- 
ducts, and a light-house at Alexandria. Among his successors, 
Ptolemy Euergetes carried his conquests beyond the Euphrates, and 
restored to Egypt many splendid and valuable spoils, which had been 
carried away by Cambyses. 

Under his successor, whose reign commenced B. C. 221, Syria 
recovered the provinces which had been wrested from her; and his 
kingdom experienced the evil effects of a weak and cruel govern- 
ment. After his death, the guardians of Ptolemy Epiphanes, his 
infant son, threatened with invasion by Macedon and Syria, applied 
for assistance to the Eomans; an important step, and one usually 
followed, in the end, by annexation. Their interference was success- 
ful, and the kingdom was secured to the prince, until, in his twenty- 
ninth year, he perished by assassination. 

The throne was at first seized by the queen, Cleopatra, a Syrian 
princess, for her infant son. The Eomans again interfering, divided 
the command between the young prince, Philometer, and his brother 
Euergetes (or Physcon). The former dying, his infant son was 
murdered by Euergetes, who took entire possession of the govern- 
ment. During a long and tyrannical reign, he grievously oppressed 
the people, while science and learning, which had heretofore distin- 
guished Egypt, took refuge in other lands. 

Lathyrus, one of his sons, succeeded; and after defeating his 
brother Alexander, who disputed the throne, laid waste the city of 
Thebes, and completed the destruction commenced by Cambyses. 

On his death, B. C. 81, the Eomans, under Sylla the dictator, set- 
tled the succession by a marriage between his daughter Cleopatra 
and her cousin Ptolemy; who, however, murdered his wife, was 
expelled the kingdom, and dying, by will bequeathed the country 
to the Eoman people. 

Auletes (the flute-player) the son of Lathyrus, a weak prince, 
and a mere instrument of the Eomans, succeeded ; but was soon 
expelled, and his daughter Berenice substituted on the throne. He 
was restored by Pompey and Mark Antony, and after murdering 
Berenice, and perpetrating other cruelties, died, leaving his throne 
and children to the guardianship of Eome. 

Among the latter were the celebrated Cleopatra and her brother 
Ptolemy. On coming of age, they were associated in the govern- 
ment, but soon disagreeing, engaged in a civil war. Cleopatra was 



72 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

compelled to retreat into Syria ; but sliortl j afterwards betook her- 
self to Alexandria, where Caesar, then master of the Eoman empire, 
had arrived, to settle the affairs of Egypt. He espoused her cause, 
and the war which ensued resulted in the death of Ptolemy, the 
establishment of Cleopatra upon the throne, and the complete 
ascendancy of the Eomans ; her subsequent career, and her suicide, 
with that of Antony, her lover, on their defeat by Octavius, are well 
known. 

With her ended the line of Grecian sovereigns, which had com- 
menced with Alexander, two hundred and ninety-six years before. 
The country was now openly transformed into a Eoman province; 
and its history, for a series of centuries, rather belongs to that of the 
vast empire of which it formed a part. Occasional insurrections 
were suppressed, and foreign invasions repelled ; and the province was 
firmly and efficiently retained until the time of the later emperors, 
whose forces were drawn from all the distant provinces to protect 
the frontier against the northern barbarians. Both Adrian and Seve- 
rus passed a considerable time there, endeavouring to improve the 
condition of the people, and to restore learning and science to their 
former flourishing condition. At a later period, Zenobia, queen of 
Palmyra, as a descendant of the Ptolemies, advanced a claim upon 
the sovereignty ; but, being overcome by Aurelian, was carried cap- 
tive to Eome. 

The Emperor Probus, on his visit to Egypt, executed many works 
of utility and ornament. The navigation of the Nile was improved, 
and temples, palaces, and bridges were erected by his army. Under 
Diocletian, a formidable revolt occurring, he laid siege to Alexandria, 
and took it, after a siege of eight months. He also destroyed the 
splendid cities of Busiris and Coptos. 

The introduction of Christianity was marked by the usual outrages 
and mutual persecution which attend the progress of a new rehgion 
among a fierce and bigoted people. 



EGYPT. 



73 



kJ d)ci> buui iL (L <xj iLh Ji Jf • 



ABTS, SCIENCES, CUSTOMS, AND MECHANICAL LABOURS OF 
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS). 



The most remarkable and grandest relics of former civilization 
are to be found in the land of Egypt — a land so ancient, that, even 
in the early days of Greece, it was considered to be of wondrous and 
remote antiquity. Some works, which excited the wonder and 
admiration of former ages, are now lost to mankind, having been 
buried beneath the shifting sands of the desert, or gradually over- 
whelmed by the alluvion yearly deposited by the Nile. Among 
these is the famous Labyrinth, described by Herodotus, and situated 
near Lake Mceris, itself a wonderful work of human labour and inge- 
nuity. This remarkable structure contained fifteen hundred rooms 
above the surface of the ground, and three thousand beneath it, 
devoted to the reception of the sacred mummies of kings, crocodiles, 
and other objects of Egyptian veneration. It was so artfully con- 
trived, that a person ignorant of the clue might wander for days in 
its vast recesses, and perhaps never emerge. 

The pyramids, the most stupendous structures ever erected by 
man, still remain, almost uninjured by time or by repeated attempts 
to demolish them. The erection of one of them is said to have cost 
the labour of an hundred thousand men for twenty years. It covers 
the surface of eleven acres, and rises nearly to the height of five 
hundred feet. In its immediate neighbourhood is the Sphynx, a 
colossal half human figure, crouching in the sand, carved firom the 
solid rock, and more than a hundred feet in length. 

The ruins of Thebes, situated about five hundred miles from the 
mouth of the Nile, have always excited the most enthusiastic admira- 
tion. The circumference of the ancient city was twenty-seven miles, 
and the structures which still remain, though ravaged by successive 
conquerors, and exposed to the elements for thousands of years, are 
unequalled by any in the world. The great temple is a quarter of a 
mile in length, and with its avenues and adjoining buildings, covers 
many hundred acres of ground. The immense statue of Ozymandias, 



74 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

now thrown from its pedestal, lies broken npon tlie ground. Its 
size may be imagined from tlie fact that tbe breadth of the shoulders 
is twenty-six feet. Two other figures, each in a sitting posture, and 
about fifty -two feet in height, still retain their places ; one of them 
being the celebrated Memnon, which was accustomed to salute the 
rising sun with a single note of music. In the neighbourhood are 
tombs excavated in the solid rock, so magnificent as to appear like 
temples ; one of which, being opened by the traveller Belzoni, was 
discovered to be that of Pharaoh Necho, who took Jerusalem, the 
captive Hebrews being portrayed upon the wall. At the island of 
Philoe, farther up, is another assemblage of stupendous temples, pal- 
aces, and monuments; and in many other places along the Nile, 
there still remains splendid memorials of the power and magnificence 
of the ancient Egyptians. 

These ruins are, for the most part, covered with figures and hiero- 
glyphics, (sacred sculpture,) which tell the history of their founders 
with various degrees of clearness and obscurity. Often the entire 
series of events of a battle or conquest are sculptured in succession, 
and the nation of the captives is readily distinguished by their features 
and costume. 

A species of hieroglyphics more difficult, and for many ages 
untranslatable, was at last deciphered by the ingenuity of Young, 
ChampoUion, and other eminent antiquarians. It consisted of a 
kind of alphabet, each letter or sound being represented by some 
object whose initial commenced with it ; and from this rude beginning 
is supposed to have sprung the more improved method of writing 
which Cadmus carried with him to Greece, and which was there 
perfected into nearly our present system of letters. These mystical 
inscriptions, so ingeniously deciphered, have thrown much light on the 
chronology and history of Egypt, and have confirmed the truth of 
statements in the ancient writings of Manetho, which had heretofore 
been considered fabulous. There is also little doubt that the present 
system of arithmetical numbers, for which we are indebted to the 
Saracens, was by them derived from that of the Egyptians. 

Learning and the sciences appear to have been pursued with great 
diligence ; and the education of an ancient philosopher was hardly 
considered complete, until he had voyaged to Egypt, and received 
from the lips of the priests some portion of their traditional lore — 
"all the wisdom of Egypt." 

Anatomy, medicine, and surgerv were particularly studied; and 



EGYPT. 



75 



the prodigious structures, which still remain, indicate a high knowl- 
edge of mathematical and mechanical science. Their histories, 
though now lost to mankind, were perused with deep interest by 
ancient writers, and served as models for the many valuable records 
of Grecian history which we now possess. A library existed at 
Thebes even before the Trojan war; and the national reputation for 
learning was revived, at a later day, by the celebrated collection at 
Alexandria. 

No people appear to have paid more attention to the funeral rites 
and the preservation of their bodies. A talent of silver ($2,500) was 
often expended upon the last of&ces of the upper classes; and the 
tombs excavated in the solid rocks are innumerable, and wrought 
with inconceivable labour. The body itself, swathed in numerous 
bandages, and embalmed in fragrant gums and spices, was deposited 
in cases, often curiously adorned with incidents in the life of their 
tenant. Although great numbers of these mummies have been, for 
many ages, wantonly destroyed, it is said that many millions still 
remain in the extensive catacombs which line the banks of the Nile. 

A singular custom prevailed, on occasion of the death of any dis- 
tinguished personage. The deceased, of whatever rank, was placed 
by the shore of the nearest lake, with a boat in waiting to carry him 
across. Two-and-forty judges, seated on the bank, listened to any 
criminal accusations which might be preferred against his former liffe ; 
and if these were substantiated, the cherished rites of sepulture were 
denied to him — a doom far more grievous to the Egyptian mind, than 
any punishment while living. If the charges were not proved, a 
heavy punishment awaited the accuser. So much attention was 
bestowed upon the final disposal of the remains of humanity, that 
some one has said that the Egyptians passed their lives in pre- 
paring to be buried. 



7g THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



MODERN EGYPT. 

After remaining a province of tlie empire until tlie seventla century, 
Egypt shared the fate of most Eastern nations in falling a prey to the 
Saracens. Amru, a brave and politic leader, gained possession of 
Alexandria by treachery ; and the consequence of this new invasion 
of barbarians was most severely felt in the destruction of the famous 
library. The bigoted victor ordered it to be burned, saying that if 
it contained any thing opposed to the Koran, it was pernicious ; and 
if not, superfluous. 

During the contentions which occurred in the eighth century 
between the rival pretenders to the throne of the caliphs, Egypt 
occasionally struggled to throw off the foreign yoke; which, however, 
was always again replaced when the dissensions of the Saracens were 
settled. Various descendants of the Prophets, of his relations, and 
other powerful families, disputed with each other for authority over 
the conquered provinces; but whoever gained the ascendancy, 
Egypt was still kept in vassalage. Toward the end of the tenth 
century, a chief directly descended from Mahomet by his daughter 
Fatima, removed his seat of government from Gyrene, where it had 
long been established, to a place on the banks of the Nile, named 
Misr-el-Kahira, or the Victorious — the modern Cairo. 

In the eleventh century, Egypt was visited with a dreadful famine, 
followed by plague and pestilence. An equally dreaded calamity, 
the. inroad of the Turks, succeeded. A body of these barbarians 
from Central Asia, in the pay of the caliph, overran the country, 
committing the most atrocious cruelties, A fresh misfortune fol- 
lowed, in the arrival of the Crusaders, who reduced Pelusium, and 
only spared Cairo for a ransom. 

Toward the close of the twelfth century Aladid, the last mon- 
arch of the race of Fatima, entrusted the entire government of the 
country to his viziers. On his death, the government was taken 
possession of by an able and ambitious minister — the celebrated 
Saladin. He assumed the title of sultan, seized all the treasures 



EGYPT. 



77 



and strong places in the empire, and threw into prison all whom he 
supposed hostile to his interests. His sovereignty was acknowledged 
by the neighbouring states, and even by the Caliph of Bagdad. An 
adventurer, who, supported by the adherents of the late king, 
appeared with an immense army, was completely defeated. 

The crusading Christians, commanded by William of Sicily, were 
besieging Alexandria by sea and land. The sultan hastened to its 
relief, and the invaders, seized with a sudden panic, retreated in such 
haste as to leave behind them their stores, baggage, and military 
engines. 

He was next exposed to the enmity and intrigues of the court of 
Damascus, which endeavoured to array against him a coalition of the 
surrounding nations. War being commenced, he so completely 
defeated the enemy as to remain master of all Syria. 

The sultan, freed for a time from his enemies, next turned his 
attention to the improvement and fortification of Cairo, where some 
of his works still testify to his enterprise and genius. He encouraged 
literature and the sciences ; and would probably have done much to 
improve the condition of Egypt, had not a fresh irruption of the 
Crusaders summoned him to Palestine. At first he was utterly 
defeated; and his splendid army perished in battle or in the retreat 
across the desert. 

Undismayed by this reverse, he renewed his operations both by 
land and sea ; recovered the ground which he had lost in the former 
campaign; and finally, in a complete victory, captured Lusignan, 
king of Jerusalem, and Arnold, the other Christian commander. 
Following his success, he seized ISTeapolis, Csesarea, and Acre, and 
then marched upon Jerusalem. The besieged made a desperate 
defence, but a breach being made in the wall, submitted, and paid 
a heavy ransom to the victor. 

His territories, which now extended from Upper Egypt to Damas- 
cus, were again invaded by a fresh host of Crusaders, commanded by 
the Emperor of Germany, Philip of France, and the famous Coeur 
de Lion (Eichard I.) of England. Encamping before Acre, they 
besieged the sultan, who made a vigorous and successful defence. 
Overcome by famine, he capitulated on honourable conditions ; being, 
however, compelled to deliver to the besiegers a part of the treasures 
which he had at different times wrested from their allies. He 
marched out with the honours of war, surrendering the town, the 
siege of which ha.d cost three hundred thousand lives. After a 



78 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOKY. 

stormy and contentious life, in which he had generally gained the 
advantage over his opponents, he died at the age of fifty-five. 

His son did not inherit his genius; but Alcamel, who succeeded 
to the throne in the beginning of the thirteenth century, in some 
measure revived the renown of the Egyptian nation. The Crusaders, 
who, for the fifth time, had invaded the dominions of the Faithful, 
were defeated, and compelled to sue for peace. 

Nojuroddin, his successor, (A. D. 1238,) whose influence in Pales- 
tine was superior to that of the Syrian princes, made a treaty, 
ensuring protection to the Christian pilgrims who flocked in great 
numbers to Jerusalem. While absent on an expedition against the 
forces of Damascus, Louis IX. with a fresh host of Crusaders, landed 
at Damietta, and commenced the campaign with considerable success. 
The sultan hastened to oppose him, but dying on his homeward way, 
left the throne to his youthful son. His widow, however, a woman 
of great courage and enterprise, raised a considerable army, defeated 
Louis, and took him prisoner. 

About this time, the remarkable class of men called Mamalukes 
gained their first accession to power. Saladin had first formed a 
guard for his person composed of these men, mostly slaves from the 
southern shores of the Caspian Sea. Their power had been increased 
by the succeeding sultans, with fresh privileges; and they finally 
acquired complete ascendancy. Ibeg, one of them, was made regent 
during the minority of the prince, and, on liis death, married the sul- 
tan's widow, and ascended the throne. He was assassinated, but left 
the throne to his son, and the Mamaluke dynasty held its authority 
in Egypt for an hundred and twenty years. At the end of that time, a 
new power sprang into existence. The Borghites, a body of Circas- 
sian slaves and soldiers, had been distributed in garrisons through 
the kingdom, in order to overawe the people. One of their leaders, 
named Barcok, overthrew the Mamaluke government, and was him- 
self elevated to the throne. He ruled wisely and bravely, and was 
succeeded by a race of Borghite princes. 

The ferocious hordes, called Mongols and Tartars, had long over- 
run the most fertile provinces of Asia ; and in the latter -part of the 
fourteenth century, Tamerlane, one of their most celebrated leaders, 
menaced the conquest of Syria. Finding that he would be power- 
fully opposed by Egypt, he desisted for the present, and the feuds 
between him and his rival, Bajazet, averted the destruction which 
would otherwise have awaited the country. 



EGYPT. 79 

For a century and a half longer, Egypt obeyed the Borghite gov- 
ernment, until m 1517 it was invaded by the Turks, and reduced to a 
Turkish province. In this state, it was governed by a pasha or vice- 
roy, appointed by the sultan of Turkey, and a divan composed of the 
principal military chiefs. The Mamalukes, or personal guards of the 
various officers of state, soon gained great ascendancy, and it was com- 
mon for them to fill the most important posts. By their aid Ibrahim, 
a janissary officer, succeeded, about the middle of the last century, 
in becoming the actual sovereign of the country. A pasha was still 
nominally at the head of the government, but neither his authority 
nor the sultan's was regarded in comparison with that of Ibrahim. 

At his death, the power was still retained by his adherents, the 
Mamalukes, and at the end of two years Ali Bey, one of their num- 
ber, made himself complete master of the country. He had been a 
Circassian slave, educated in the house of Ibrahim, and was distin- 
guished at first for his fiery courage, as afterwards for his policy 
and ambition. Expelling the pasha, and refusing the accustomed 
tribute, he openly assumed supreme power, and set the sultan at 
defiance. 

Eepeated attempts on the part of the Porte to assassinate him were 
frustrated ; and to strengthen his position, he equipped a fleet in the 
Eed Sea, and seized Mecca and Djedda, intending to make the latter 
the depot of an extensive East Indian commerce. In 1771, he des- 
patched a force of sixty thousand men against Syria, defeated the 
Turks, and make himself master of the whole coimtry. The treach- 
ery of his general, Mohammed Bey, who suddenly retreated into 
Egypt, deprived him of the fruits of this victory. 

Ere long, Mohammed, exciting an insurrection, compelled Ali to 
flee into Syria. Eeturning with a small force to regain his kingdom, 
he was defeated, made prisoner, and shortly perished, probably by 
private assassination. 

Mohammed, now in possession of the supreme authority, renewed 
his allegiance to Turkey, and paid the accustomed tribute. After 
ten years of cruelty and oppression, he died, and his authority was 
shared by Ibrahim and Mourad, two rival and powerful beys. For 
ten years this state of affairs continued, though distu.rbed by mutual 
jealousy. At the end of that time, the sultan, having concluded a 
peace with Eussia, resolved once more to reduce Egypt to subjection. 
He despatched Hassan Pasha, with twenty-five thousand men, to 
Alexandria. The Turkish commander, defeating the Mamalukes, 



30 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

under Mourad, entered Cairo, where lie appointed a governor, and 
pursued the beys into Upper Egj^pt, 

During the brief interval in which he held authority, his humanity 
and wisdom did much to alleviate the condition of the oppressed 
Egyptians. After a short period, Ibrahim and Mourad returned, 
and succeeded in regaining their power. 

In 1798 a more important series of events commenced. The 
French, under ISTapoleon, landed at Alexandria, under pretext of 
protecting the rights of the sultan, but in reality to gain a new prov- 
ince, and open the way to India. 

It had indeed long been a favourite project with several European 
powers, to gain possession of the isthmus of Suez, which nature has 
marked as the thoroughfare for communication between the East and 
the West. 

This daring attempt, however, produced a less permanent result 
than might have been expected. Marching toward Cairo, through 
the burning sands, the French army encountered much privation and 
distress. Not far from the capital, and within view of the pyramids, 
they were encountered by the Mamalukes, the real masters of the 
country, under Ibrahim and Mourad Bey. As the action commenced, 
Napoleon, in that classic enthusiasm which no army but his own 
could have appreciated, cried out to his followers: "Soldiers! from 
yonder pyramids, twenty centuries behold your actions!" The dis- 
ciplined and veteran invaders threw themselves into squares, and 
firmly repulsed the furious and repeated attacks of their brave but 
barbarous opponents. In these desperate and unavailing charges, 
and in vainly attempting to swim the Nile, after their defeat, this 
splendid body of cavalry was almost completely destroyed. The 
victor, entering Cairo in triumph, instituted for a brief time a gov- 
ernment more mild and beneficial than any which the unfortunate 
country had enjoyed for many centuries. 

The Turkish government now declared war against the French 
republic, and was supported by England, which sent a powerftil fleet 
to the assistance of her ally. A terrible naval engagement soon 
occurred in the bay of Aboukir, in which the French fleet was almost 
entirely destroyed and taken by that of the English, under Admiral 
Nelson. Napoleon, after various successes in Syria, sustained a severe 
loss and defeat in attempting the siege of Acre, which was bravely 
defended by the Turks and English, and retreated into Egypt. 
A Turkish fleet soon appeared off Alexandria, and disembarked 



vv' ufmunk/ m 



o 

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b 

« t> 

W O 








THE BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS. 



As the Mamalukes, under Mourad Bey, came charging desperately upon the 
French line, which extended to the right, Napioleon ordered the infiintry to 
throw themselves into squares ; and, with that classic enthusiasm which no 
army hut his own coald have appreciated, cried out. "Soldiers 1 from yonder 
pyramids, twenty centuries behold your actions ' The enemy, after a mooc 
frantic and persevering series of attacks, were almost entirely cut off. 



EGYPT. 



81 



eighteen thousand men at Aboukir. After a most desperate contest, 
this force, with the exception of one-third, was cut to pieces or driven 
into the sea. 

Soon after, entrusting the command to Kleber, the French general 
returned to France, where his presence was required, not only for his 
own interests, but for those of the nation. The new commander 
was soon assassinated by a fanatical Turk, and Menou, who took the 
command, was compelled to defend himself against a fresh force des- 
patched by England under Sir Kalph Abercrombie. After various 
undecisive actions, the French were defeated, and Menou was besieged 
in Alexandria. Their communication with the interior was also cut 
off by the English, who admitted the waters of the sea into Lake 
Maraeotis ; a barbarous act, which submerged an immense extent of 
fertile country, and deprived thousands of their homes and possessions. 

Cairo being besieged by the new invaders, and Beliard, who 
commanded there, seeing no prospect of assistance from France, sur- 
rendered; and Alexandria soon followed its example. All the 
French soldiers were, by agreement, sent to France; and Egypt, 
having been the scene of a destructive war for two years, was once 
more subjected to the government of Turkey. The authority of the 
remaining Mamaluke beys was, indeed, by the interference of the 
British, still in a great measure confirmed. 

The chiefs were, however, soon massacred, in a most treacherous 
manner, by command of Hassan, the grand vizier. Having perpe- 
trated this deed, he departed, leaving a favourite slave, Mohammed 
Khosrouf. pasha of Cairo. The latter despatched a force against the 
Mamalukes in Upper Egypt, who still held out. This was defeated 
with great loss, and the pasha took occasion to attempt the ruin of 
Mehemet Ali, the second in command, of whose growing influence 
he had become jealous. 

This remarkable man, who has played such a conspicuous part in 
the modern history of the East, was an Albanian by birth, and by 
profession a tax-gatherer under the Turks. This office he discharged 
with such severity and efficiency as to obtain preferment and assist- 
ance from the Turkish governor. He next entered into business as 
a tobacco merchant, and was successful in trade, until the French 
invasion of Egypt gave him an opportunity to display his military 
talents. With a force of three hundred men he joined the Turkish 
forces, and soon so distinguished himself as to be promoted to a 
higher command. 
6 



82 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

Being summoned by Kliosrouf, on the occasion before mentioned, 
to appear privately before him in the night, the Albanian, well 
knowing the usual termination of such interviews, refused to comply, 
except in daylight and at the head of his troops. The pasha hoping 
for protection from the Albanians commanded by Taher pasha, 
admitted them into the city. The event did not answer his expecta- 
tions. Clamorous for their pay, these wild troops attacked the 
citadel, compelled him to flee from Cairo, and installed their own 
chief as governor. The tyranny of the latter soon brought his 
government to a close, and the Mamalukes, recovering their power, 
appointed three chiefs to the command, of whom Mehemet Ali was 
one. By artfal intrigues he contrived to embroil his associates, and 
gain possession of the capital. For greater security, he then rein- 
stated the exiled pasha, intending to use him merely as the instru- 
ment of his own purposes. 

The sultan, perceiving his ambitious designs, in the year 1804 
issued orders that the Albanians should be sent to their own country, 
and replaced by troops more to be depended on; but Ali, artfully 
evading this command, soon took upon himself the office of pasha 
or viceroy of Egypt. The Porte, seeing that it could do no better, 
confirmed the self-appointed governor, and established him in power. 

The Mamalukes, who had gathered in force to oppose him, were 
inveigled into Cairo, and there slaughtered in such numbers as to 
render them far less formidable. The sultan, still jealous of his 
power, summoned Mehemet to leave his capital, and be invested 
with the government of Salonica. The wary usurper was too well 
versed in eastern policy to comply. "Cairo is to be publicly sold, " 
said he; "whoever will give most blows of the sabre, will win it." 
At the same time, he maintained, in appearance, a profound defer- 
ence to the Porte, which finally, seeing that he could not be dispos- 
sessed, yielded to circumstances, and invested him with a written 
title to the viceroy alty of Egypt. His position secure, he .again 
advanced against the remaining Mamalukes in Upper Egypt, and 
completely defeated them. 

In 1807 the British government, through jealousy of French 
influence at the court of Constantinople, despatched a force of five 
thousand men to seize Alexandria. This object they effected, but 
subsequently were entirely defeated, and great numbers were killed 
and taken prisoners — four hundred and fifty heads being pubhcly 
exposed at Cairo. 



EGYPT. 33 

The paslia, still jealous of the remaining Mamaluke chiefs, now 
resolved to commit the most atrocious act of perfidy and assassina- 
tion which modern times have witnessed. On the 1st of March, 
1811, on the occasion of conferring a new dignity on his son 
Toussoun, he invited the devoted victims to share in the splendour 
of the ceremony. He received them with the greatest affability 
and courtesy, and the procession moved to the appointed place. 
Suddenly, while passing through a narrow square, the Mamalukes 
found themselves shut in, and a destructive fire opened upon them 
by their concealed enemies from all sides. Strength and courage 
were of no avail, and these splendid soldiers perished without being 
able to strike a blow in their defence. One only escaped, who, 
spurring his horse up a rampart, leaped over it, and, though falling 
about forty feet on the other side, came off unhurt, and was secreted 
by certain Arabs. Several hundred perished on this occasion, and 
the number of victims altogether was about a thousand. 

Mehemet next entered upon a war with the Wahabees, in Arabia, 
and after a contest of several years, conducted by his sons Toussoun 
and Ibrahim, succeeded in subduing them. His success was princi- 
pally owing to the European discipline introduced into his army by 
the French officers whom he employed. When first subjected to 
the new system, the soldiery evinced the greatest discontent, and 
even, at one time, endangered the power and life of the pasha 
himself To restore order, he proclaimed a general amnesty, and 
the troops returned to their duty; but shortly after, many of the 
chief movers in the mutiny died, or mysteriously disappeared. 

His next movement was to despatch his son into Upper Egypt 
and Sennaar, with instructions to capture as many of the blacks as 
possible. He succeeded so well as to bring back a vast number of 
these unhappy creatures; but out of twenty thousand who were 
subjected to the improved discipline, at the end of two years, not 
three thousand survived. 

Undeterred by the difficulty or cruelty of his project, he next 
levied a conscription of thirty thousand Arabs and peasants, whom 
he placed under the direction of Colonel Seve, his principal military 
adviser, with five hundred Mamalukes, who were to fulfil the duties 
of oificers. This scheme succeeded better, and the pasha soon found 
himself in possession of a large and tolerably efficient army. So 
great, however, is the horror of the conscription, that it has been a 
very ordinary thing among the lower classes to put out one of their 



Q4: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

ejes, or otherwise to mutilate themselves, in hopes of avoiding it. 
To overcome this last refuge of the unhappy peasants, the tyrant 
organized a one-eyed regiment. 

Having subdued all Upper Egypt and a great part of Nubia, he 
formed the project of more extended conquests. His reputed son 
Ibrahim, distinguished for his cruelty, valour, and military skill, 
was despatched with a select force to reduce Syria to submission. 
Acre, the key of the East, was compelled to surrender, the Turkish 
forces were every where defeated, and their fleet was overcome by 
that which the vigorous policy of the pasha had already called into 
existence; Constantinople itself was threatened by the victorious 
arms of Ibrahim. At this juncture, several of the European powers, 
headed by England, interfered in behalf of the Turkish empire, 
which seemed threatened with annihilation. 

A fleet was despatched against Acre, and after a terrible bombard- 
ment, gained possession of that important post. Beirout shared a 
similar fate. The pasha and his enterprising son were forced to 
abandon most of their conquests, and the former was compelled to 
hold Egypt itself as nominal viceroy of the sultan. 

After a long and sanguinary career, in which he had exercised 
an authority more despotic and unlimited than any monarch of the 
East, the intellect of Mehemet began gTadually to decline. In 1847, 
he became imquestionably deranged, and in the following year his 
relatives found it necessary, to secure the lives of those around him, 
to subject him to some constraint. 

The succession had been long settled upon Ibrahim, whose cruel 
and ferocious disposition caiised the unhappy nation to regard with 
deep alarm the prospect of his accession. To the great relief of 
all, however, he expired, at this critical period, worn out with excess 
and intemperance. By this event. Abbas Pacha, a grandson of the 
viceroy, became heir to the pachalik, and lately received from 
the sultan a solemn investiture in his rank. Though a bigoted 
Turk, and deeply addicted to the vices of his nation, he is said 
to be good-natured, and free from the cruelty which has disgraced 
his predecessors. 

During his entire reign, Mehemet Ali paid much attention to 
manufactures and the useful arts, many of which he successfally 
introduced into the country. On account, however, of his despotic 
system of forcing them into existence, irrespective of true political 
economy, or the rights of individuals, little good has resulted to the 



EGYPT. 



85 



people. Moreover, tlie monopoly of all profitable brandies of trade, 
whicli lie held in bis own bands, greatly repressed tbe spirit of 
industry and enterprise. 

A noted instance of bis tyrannical metbod of improving tbe 
country at tbe expense of tbe inbabitants, may be found in tbe 
Mabmoudieb canal — a gigantic work, extending from Alexandria to 
tbe navigable portion of tbe Nile. An immense number of Fellahs 
or peasants from tbe surrounding country were burried to tbe spot, 
and compelled, witb insufficient provision and implements, to work 
day and nigbt at tbis laborious undertaking. In six weeks, tbe 
excavation was nearly completed ; but during tbat brief time, twenty 
tbousand of tbese unbappy serfs died from bunger, overwork, and 
exposure. 

Tbe condition of tbe lower classes is, indeed, at all times truly 
wretcbed. Tbe pasba's tax-gatberers watcb every garden, tree, 
and meadow ; and every tbing, except a bare subsistence, is wrung 
from tbe working classes tbrougbout tbe country. It bas been tbe 
fasbion among tbose wbo admire a strong and successful tyranny 
to praise tbe administration of Mebemet; but tbe best comment 
upon bis system may be found in tbe fact, tbat since be gained 
possession of tbe country, tbe population of Egypt bas dwindled to 
one-balf of wbat it was even under tbe tyranny of bis predecessors. 
Mucb attention bas lately been directed to tbis interesting country, 
on account of tbe newly-adopted passage to India by tbe istbmus 
of Suez and tbe Eed Sea. Tbat its acquisition would be very 
desirable to England, is unquestionable ; and almost any cbange of 
government would probably be for tbe benefit of tbe oppressed 
inbabitants. It seems probable, bowever, tbat tbe jealousy of 
France and otber continental powers will prevent ber from making 
any direct movement at present in accomplisbment of ber wishes. 



GREECE. 



u dJj dX Sf Jj £^ xi i 



THE EAELY HISTOEY OF GREECE. 

Geeece, tlie most interesting and celebrated of lands, anciently 
occupied the modern kingdom of that name, and a considerable part 
of Turkey in Europe. It was divided into a number of small inde- 
pendent states, sometimes at war with each other, and sometimes 
joined in alliance against a common enemy. It comprised, on the 
main land, the provinces of Attica, Boeotia, Phocis, Doris, vEtolia, 
Locris and Meggera. North of these were Epirus, Thessaly, and 
Macedonia, which, though not belonging to Greece Proper, are 
usually included in its historj^ Lower Greece formed a peninsula, 
then called Peloponnesus, (the island of Pelops,) and now the Morea. 
It was joined to the continent by the isthmus of Corinth, and was 
composed of the states of Corinth, Sicyon, Arcadia, Argolis, Laconia, 
Messenia and Elis. Many of these were very limited, hardly 
exceeding in extent the county of a Western state. Moreover, 
there were many islands, in the Archipelago and elsewhere, some 
belonging to the foregoing states, and others independent. 

Like most nations of antiquity, their origin is doubtful. So 
many of their accounts are fabulous and mythological, that we know 
little beyond the fact, that they were descended from an extensive 
tribe, called the Pelasgians, and from the Hellenes, a race from the 
north of Thessaly. 

The first kingdoms supposed to have been founded, are those of 
Sicyon, Argos, and Mycense, on the peninsula, which are referred by 
some to the time of Abraham. About B. 0. 1556, Cecrops, an 
Egyptian, travelling into Attica, founded the city of Athene 







l< ^V ^^' '^^ " 



GEEECE. 



87 



(Athens), civilized the inluibitants, and instituted laws. He also 
founded the famous Court of Areopagus, and his second successor, 
Amphictyon, the renowned council which bore his name. Codrus, 
the last monarch of this line, devoted himself to death for his coun- 
try, and afterwards the title of archoji, or governor, was substituted 
for that of king. 

Cadmus, who invented the Greek letters, or perhaps borrowed 
them from the Phoenicians, founded Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, 
about B. C. 1453. Sparta, or Lacedaemon, was founded about the 
same time. To avenge the abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, 
its king, the Greeks united in besieging the city of Troy, and took 
it by storm, after a contest which lasted for ten years. It may be 
remarked, as a proof of the rude manners of the age, that about 
the same time when Jephtha fulfilled his rash vow in Israel, Aga- 
memnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia, to propitiate the offended 
Diana in favour of the Grecian arms. 

Corinth was formed into a kingdom about B. C. 1184, by Sisy- 
phus, and numbered among its kings Periander, one of the Seven 
Wise Men of Greece. Macedonia was first ruled by Caranus, a 
descendant of Hercules. In all the states a kingly government 
prevailed at first, but was afterwards changed into republican, except 
in Macedonia, 

These states, independent, yet united by a common language and 
religion, were further leagued together by the famous Amphictyonic 
Council, which met twice in the year to consult for the general good, 
and to which many of them sent deputies. 

The communities, however, which played the most conspicuous 
part, both in domestic dissensions and in confronting a foreign 
enemy, were Athens and Sparta. To the history of these, more 
particular attention will be given, and that of the others will be 
found, in a great measure, interwoven with the affairs of the two 
leading nations. 

Sparta was governed by thirteen, in succession, of the Pelopidae, 
or descendants of Pelops, from whom the peninsula was named. 
These being supplanted by the Heraclidse, or descendants of Hercules, 
the throne was shared for several centuries by two kings, equal in 
sovereignty. During this time, the peasants or Helots, having taken 
up arms to assert their right to equal privileges, were subdued, and, 
with their posterity, condemned to perpetual slavery. At this 
period, also, Lycurgus instituted his celebrated body of laws. Hav- 



88 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

ing travelled into Asia and Egypt, studying the laws and institutions 
of other nations, he framed a code by which it was enacted that the 
royal authority should be subject to that of a senate, chosen for life, 
and this, in its turn, to that of the people. (A century later, the 
Court of the Ephori was instituted, consisting of five members, 
annually elected by the people from among themselves, and possess- 
ing almost supreme power.) The law-giver divided all the lands of 
the state among the people, and prohibited the use of any metal for 
coin except iron. 

Further to enforce temperance and frugality, all the men were 
compelled to eat at a public table, where the provisions were strictly 
specified. All children born with any important defect, were 
exposed to perish in a cavern near Taygetus — a high mountain over- 
hanging the city of Sparta. The strong and healthy were taken 
from their parents at the age of seven, and educated by the state. 
From their tenderest years they were trained in the severest discipline. 
They were taught to be indifferent to their fare, quiet in their man- 
ners, to bear exposure to cold, and to overcome fear. Their heads were 
shaved, and they fought each other naked, with such obstinacy, that 
they would lose their eyes, or even their lives, before yielding up 
the contest. Until the age of thirty, (till which period these exer- 
cises continued,) they were not allowed to marry, to serve in the army, 
or to hold any office. 

The discipline of the weaker sex was not less rigorous. Until 
the age of twenty, when they were allowed to marry, they were 
trained to severe industry, and shared all manly and invigorating 
exercises ; whence they became a fierce and patriotic race of Ama- 
zons. One, giving his shield to her son, bade him "Eeturn with it, 
or on it!" such being the manner of carrying the dead who had 
perished in conflict. Another, learning that her son had died in 
battle, answered, "It was for this that I brought him into the 
world!" 

War was the principal employment of the Spartans ; they exer- 
cised no mechanical art, but in time of peace, employed themselves 
in hunting and athletic games. Their unfortunate slaves, the Helots, 
supported them by tilling the ground. These were treated with 
great severity, and if the jealousy of their masters was excited by 
the increase of their numbers, it was allowable by a secret law to 
put them to death. Two thousand are said to have thus disappeared 
on a single occasion. 



G E E E C E . 



89 



The citizens, thus supported in leisure and competence, passed 
mucli of their time in the public halls, where they conversed together, 
and cherished a spirit of patriotism. Their law-giver prohibited 
them from walling the city, lest they should rely too little upon 
arms; and it was enacted, on penalty of death, that they should 
never fly from an enemy, however numerous, or resign their arms 
except with their lives. 

Having framed these laws and institutions, with some others, and 
having persuaded the people to take an oath for their strict observ- 
ance while absent, Lycurgus departed to consult the oracle of 
Delphos. This authority affirming, in answer, that his decrees would 
render the Lacedemonians prosperous, he never returned, and at his 
death ordered his ashes to be thrown into the sea. 

By these severe and martial regulations, the Spartans became 
exceedingly expert in war. They first turned their arms against the 
neighbouring state of Messenia, which they conquered after a war 
of twenty years. Thirty-nine years afterwards, the Messenians 
endeavoured to throw off the yoke ; but after a most sanguinary 
contest, were expelled from their country, which was added to 
Sparta, and greatly increased her power and resources (B. C. 664). 

Not long before this, the Athenians had also become desirous of 
adopting a written code of statutes ; and Draco, a man of great integ- 
rity and severity, was selected to frame one. His laws were so cruel 
and sanguinary, that they were said to be written with blood — 
death being the punishment for all offences indiscriminately. Such 
rigour, however, defeated itself; through humanity, the statutes 
were not executed, and soon fell into disuse. Licentiousness and 
disorder succeeding, the people applied to Solon, one of the Seven 
Wise Men of Greece. (The others were Thales, the Milesian ; Chilo, 
a Lacedemonian; Pittacus, of Mitylene; Periander, of Corinth; 
Bias, and Cleobulus.) This man, famous for his prudence and virtue, 
was elected archon, or chief magistrate of Athens, and entrusted 
with full power to remodel the laws. In this task, as he said, he 
was rather guided by expediency, and the necessity of the times, 
than by pure justice, abstractly considered. He repealed the laws 
of Draco, except those against murder, and relieved the poor by 
abolishing their debts to the rich. On the other hand, he divided 
the people into four ranks, according to their wealth, excluding 
from the poorest and most numerous the right to hold any office 
whatever. All citizens, however, were allowed to vote in the popu- 



90 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, 

lar assembly; and as an appeal to this from the magistrates was 
permitted, in time all matters of consequence came before them. 
The Areopagus was remodelled, and acquired much renown by the 
wisdom of its decisions ; the Romans themselves sometimes referring 
to it the most intricate causes. He further appointed a council of 
four hundred, who were to examine all questions before they were 
submitted to the people. 

No person was allowed to remain neuter in ptiblic dissensions, on 
penalty of exile and confiscation. The Areopagus might inquire 
into the private affairs of any one, and if he had no visible means 
of gaining a subsistence, inflict punishment. Chastity and temper- 
ance were enforced with reasonable severity. 

Having made these enactments, Solon commenced his travels, 
having bound the citizens, by oath, religiously to observe his laws 
for at least one hundred years. He had not been long absent, how- 
ever, before the country was distracted by three different factions. 
The most powerful of these was headed by Pisistratus, a man of 
great talent and many virtues, but of inordinate ambition. Learned 
himself, he was a patron of learning ; and is said to have introduced 
the works of Homer, and caused them to be written in correct order. 
Solon returning at the end of two years, in vain endeavoured to 
oppose his designs. Pisistratus artfully wounding himself, appeared 
covered with blood before the people, and so enlisted their sympa- 
thies, that they granted him a body-guard of fifty men. Making 
this a nucleus, he soon increased it to an army, seized the citadel, 
and usurped the supreme power. Solon did not long survive the 
independence of his country; and the dictator, with the same art 
and ability, maintained his power during life, and transmitted it to 
his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. 

Following the example of their father, they reigned for eighteen 
years, encouraging learning, and promoting the education of the 
people. Among other poets, the celebrated Anacreon and Simonides 
were attendant on their court. At last, to fevenge a private injury, 
Hipparchus was slain by the friends Harmodius and Aristogiton, 
who also lost their lives in the attempt; and Hippias, by the influ- 
ence in Sparta of the Alcm^onidEe, who had been banished from 
Athens, was likewise dethroned (B. C. 508), the same year in which 
the kings were expelled from Eome. The statues of the two friends 
were erected in the market-place, and their names ever after were 
held in the highest veneration at Athens. 



GEEECE. Ql 

Hippias, however, sought the court of Persia, and by representing 
Attica as an easy conquest, gained its support; and the Athenians, 
refusing to restore him. to the throne, were compelled to make 
preparations for defence. 



THE PERSIAN INVASIONS. 

Persia was at this time the most powerful nation in existence ; 
while the little state of Athens only contained about ten thousand 
citizens, besides strangers and servants. Sparta at the same period 
was peopled by only nine thousand citizens and thirty thousand 
slaves. The Grreek colonies in Asia Minor, then dependent on Per- 
sia, revolted; and being assisted with ships by Athens, invaded 
Lydia, burned the city of Sardis, and maintained a war with their 
oppressors for six years. Darius, the Persian king, in revenge, 
determined to attempt the conquest of all Grreece. Mardonius, his 
son-in-law, was first sent in command of the fleet and army; but 
suffering disaster from a tempest, was attacked by the Thracians, 
and returned defeated. Datis and Artaphernes, two experienced 
generals, replaced him. The king now sent heralds into the various 
states of Greece, requiring submission. The smaller communities 
yielded, but the spirited Athenians, when earth and water were 
demanded of them, as the usual token of vassalage, threw one her- 
ald into a ditch and another into a well, and sneeringly desired 
them to help themselves. JEgina, having succumbed to the foreign 
influence, was attacked, and finally subdued by its neighbours the 
Athenians. 

The Persian generals now commenced the campaign, with a fleet 
of six hundred ships, an army one hundred and twenty thousand 
strong, and instructions to destroy and depopulate the resisting prov- 
inces. They overcame the Eretrians, after a gallant defence, burned 
their city, and sent the inhabitants in chains to Darius. They then 
advanced to Marathon, a plain by the sea side, a few miles from 
Athens, and ever since memorable for the most glorious of the 
victories of freedom. 



92 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

To oppose the immense force of their enemies, tlie Greeks liad 
only ten thousand citizens of Athens, and a small band of allies, 
from Plataea; but these were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, 
and Themistocles, men whose names are yet proverbial for valour, 
wisdom, and patriotism. Miltiades, the chief in command, drew up 
his little army at the foot of a height overlooking the plain, that 
famous field, where stiU 

"The mountains look on Marathon — 
And Marathon looks on the sea." 

The shore was lined with the Persian galleys, and tne plain was 
half-covered with their army. As they advanced, the Athenians 
charged in an extended line — the centre, which was weakest, being 
commanded by Aristides and Themistocles, and the wings being 
strengthened as much as possible. The enemy engaged the centre 
with great bravery, and it was on the point of giving way, when 
the two wings, being victorious, attacked them on both flanks, and 
threw them into confusion. The rou.t soon became universal, and 
they fled to their ships, pursued fiercely by the Greeks. Seven ves- 
sels were seized, others were set on fire, and six thousand of the 
enemy were left dead on the field of battle. Many, also, were 
drowned and burned in attempting to regain their fleet. Of the 
Greeks, only two hundred fell ; monuments were erected over them, 
and a statue, dedicated to Nemesis, the goddess of retribution, was 
carved by the celebrated Phidias, from a block brought by the Per- 
sians to commemorate their anticipated victory. The mound or 
tumulus, in which the defenders of their country were interred, is 
still an object of interest to travellers. This battle, fought B. C. 490, 
is one of the most important in the annals of warfare — ^both as a 
splendid example of patriotic courage, and for its influence in check- 
ing the tide of Eastern barbarism, which threatened to overflow the 
nations most advanced in civilization. 

The Athenians, with their customary caprice, soon became dis- 
contented with Miltiades, and this eminent commander died in prison. 

Darius also died as he was preparing to invade Greece in person, 
and his son Xerxes succeeded to his throne and his project. 
Declaring that he did not choose any longer to huy the figs of 
Attica, he prepared an immense force both by land and sea. His 
fleet is said to have consisted of nearly two thousand five hundred 
vessels, transports included, and his army to have been composed 



GKEECE. 



93 



of two millions of Persians, Medes, Bactrians, Lydians, Assyrians, 
and others, over wliom his empire extended. Much of this is prob- 
ably exaggerated; but it is certain that he built a bridge of boats 
over the Hellespont, and that his immense army was seven days in 
crossing. With this vast army he marched upon Greece, ten years 
after the battle of Marathon. The smaller states submitted; Athens 
and Sparta alone determined to defend their liberties to the last. 

Aristides the Just, who had been banished, was recalled, and 
Themistocles, the ablest general since Miltiades, was appointed 
commander of their little army of eleven thousand men. With the 
greatest industry a fleet of two hundred and eighty sail was equipped 
by the allies, and the command given to Eurybiades, a Spartan, It 
was determined to make the first stand at Thermopylae, a narrow 
pass in Thessaly, and Leonidas, one of the kings of Sparta, led 
thither a force of six thousand men. For two days he maintained 
his post against the whole Persian force, and repulsed every attack 
with great slaughter. ■ By the treachery of a Trachinian, twenty thou- 
sand of the enemy were conducted to a mountain commanding the 
strait, and Leonidas perceived that his situation was no longer 
tenable. Dismissing his allies, he remained with only three hundred 
Spartans, and a few Thespians and Thebans, in all not a thousand 
men. Devoting themselves to death, they made an attack at mid- 
night on the Persian camp, and having slain an immense number 
of the enemy, died almost to a man. On the same day, the Persian 
fleet was defeated by the Greeks, with the loss of many ships. 

The invading army now marched on Athens, and the inhabitants 
took refuge in Salamis, a small neighbouring island. The city was 
taken, the citadel burned, and its few defenders were put to the sword. 
The Greeks built a wall across the isthmus to defend the peninsula, 
and their vessels, to the number of three hundred and eighty, 
assembled at Salamis, under the command of Themistocles and Eury- 
biades. The fleet of the Persians, far more numerous, advanced to 
engage them, and the sovereign himself, from a high promontory, 
surveyed the contest. 

"A king sat on the rocky brow 

That looks o'er sea-born Salamis, 
And ships, in thousands, lay below, 

And men in nations — all were his! 
He counted them at break of day, 
And hen the sun set, where were theyl" 



94 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, 

The Grecian admiral prudently delayed tlie action until a strong 
wind, which usually rises at a certain time, had commenced to blow ; 
and with this in his favour, bore down upon the hostile fleet. Their 
vessels, from their great height and bulk, being unmanageable in the 
narrow strait, were dashed together by the waves, and were sunk 
and boarded in all directions by the swift light gallej'^s of the Greeks. 
Two hundred were burned and many were taken. Xerxes, in 
chagrin, left Mardonius in command of the remainder of his army, 
and hastened back to the Hellespont, which he was compelled to 
pass in a fishing-boat, his bridge having been destroyed by the waves. 

Mardonius, with three hundred thousand men, again overran 
Attica, and the Grecian force, now increased to seventy thousand, 
engaged them near the little city of Platsea. Aristides was in com- 
mand of the Athenians, Oleombrotus of the Spartans, and Pausanias, 
a Lacedemonian, was the chief general. Mardonius falling, Arta- 
bazis, with forty thousand men, fled to Asia; and the remainder of 
the army being routed, were refused quarter, and put to the sword, 
to the number, it is said, of one hundred thousand. Thus ended 
this formidable invasion; and thus perished the last Persian army 
that ever crossed the Hellespont. On the same day, a most import- 
ant victory was gained at Mycale, in Ionia, by the Greeks over 
Tigranes, the Persian general. His ships were burned, and he 
perished in the battle, with a vast number of his men. 



PROM THE DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS TO THE END OF THE 
FIRST PELOPONNESl AN AVAR. 

The Athenians now fortified their city, and increased its strength, 
thus exciting the jealousy of Sparta. A secret project of Themis- 
tocles for burning the fleet of their allies was defeated by the 
uprightness of Aristides. The two nations next sent out an 
expedition under Pausanias, and Cimon the son of Miltiades, which, 
among other victories, took the city of Byzantium (Constantinople), 
and brought away many captives, and a vast amount of plunder. 



GREECE. 



95 



This newly-acquired wealth, and the imitation of foreign habits, 
appear to have corrupted the Greeks from the primitive simplicity 
of their manners. Pausanias, through ambition, entered into an 
intrigue with Xerxes, and offered, as the price of his daughter's 
hand, the betrayalof Sparta, and of all Greece. Being detected, 
after two trials he was found guilty, and taking refuge in the temple 
of Minerva, there perished of hunger. 

Themistocles being also accused, though falsely, of sharing the 
plans of Pausanias, was compelled to fly for his life, and after 
various wanderings, took refuge at the Persian court. The king, 
admiring his eloquence and self-possession, entei-tained him with 
great magnificence, and assigned three cities for his support. But 
Avhen he proposed to his guest to take command of an expedition 
against Greece, this eminent patriot, rather than turn his arms 
against his country, put an end to his life by poison. His remains 
were afterwards carried to Athens by the repentant citizens, and a 
monument erected over them on the shore at the Piraeus. Aristides, 
having Ax^on the highest honour by his honesty and disinterestedness, 
while holding the treasury at his entire disposal, died so poor that 
he was buried at the public expense. 

After the death of these great men, Cimon the son of Miltiades 
began to acquire honourable distinction. He delivered the Greek 
cities in Asia Minor from the rule of the Persians, destroyed their 
fleet, and compelled them to relinquish jurisdiction over the contested 
colonies. Ere long, he found a rival in Pericles, a young man 
possessed of the highest advantages in birth, fortune, person, talents, 
and education. This new favourite of the people lessened the power 
of the Areopagus, by causing frequent appeals to the people from its 
decisions. A jealousy against Sparta again arising, Cimon, who v/as 
supposed to favour that nation, was banished, and the alliance 
dissolved. The Athenians further took the high-sounding title of 
"Protectors of Greece," and conducted so haughtily, that a collision 
ensued between the rival nations. The people of Athens were at 
first defeated, though Cimon came to their assistance, but afterwards 
were victorious. This turned the popular opinion in his favour, and 
he was recalled after a banishment of five years, Pericles himself 
proposing the decree. Peace being restored by his mediation, he 
set out Avith two hundred sail for the conquest of Cyprus, where 
dying, and his death being concealed, the country submitted before 
the terror of his name. 



96 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Pericles, now left free from opposition, found himself without a 
rival in the popular affection. He distributed the conquered territory, 
exhibited public shows, and so won upon the minds of the people, 
that he may be said to have attained sovereign power in a free 
republic. To his administration Athens owed the Parthenon, and 
other splendid buildings, whose ruins still excite universal admira- 
tion. Among other exploits, he led an expedition against Samos, 
in favour of the Milesians, and besieged and took its capital with 
battering rams and other engines, then for the first time used in war. 

On occasion of a war breaking out between certain petty states, 
the powerful republics of Athens and Sparta, espousing different 
sides, after fruitless negotiation, became involved in a long and 
terrible contest — the famous " Peloponnesian War," recorded by 
Thucydides. The inferior states also took part in the dispute, the 
majority siding with Sparta which was considered a protector of 
the rights of provinces. That people, with their allies, took the 
field with sixty thousand men. To these the Athenians were able 
to oppose only thirty thousand in all. Being thus overmatched, by 
advice of Pericles, they shut themselves up in Athens, determined 
to resist to the last extremity. Meanwhile, their fleet of three 
hundred galleys, more powerful than that of the Spartans, ravaged 
the enemy's coasts in all directions, and levied contributions suf6.cient 
to carry on the war. The invading force marched within seven 
miles of Athens. The people, eager for an action, were restrained by 
the wisdom of Pericles, who shut the gates, and sent a hundred sail 
to distress the coasts of Peloponnesus. After laying waste the 
country around Athens, the besiegers retired; and the Athenians, 
sallying forth, invaded the enemy's country in turn with consider- 
able success. 

The next year the siege was renewed. At the same time a more 
terrible calamity befell the Athenians. A plague, one of the most 
dreadful recorded in history, travelled from Egypt through Lybia 
a,nd Persia, and finally fell with intense fury upon the multitudes 
cooped up within the walls of Athens. The scene, as described by 
Thucydides, is terrible ; the living and dead seemed huddled together 
in a confused mass. The blame was laid on Pericles for gathering 
such gTcat numbers within the narrow limits of the city. He still, 
however, refused to risk an engagement, though the enemy was 
laying waste the country without, and the multitude within was daily 
decreasing by pestilence and famine. He was deposed from com- 



GEEECE. 



97 



mand, but, with tlie characteristic fickleness of the Athenians, soon 
reinstated with more than former honours. He died not long after 
of the prevailing disorder. 

The next year the Spartans and their allies laid siege to Platasa, 
a city which had faithfully espoused the cause of Athens. After a 
heroic resistance, only five hundred of the garrison were left, half 
of whom cut their way through the enemy by night, and arrived 
safely at Athens. The remainder, after a further defence, being 
compelled by famine to surrender, were put to death. 

Cleon, a popular and boisterous demagogue, now controlled the 
counsels of the Athenians. The Spartans would have been willing 
to make peace, but Cleon, with Demosthenes, (the admiral, and 
ancestor of the celebrated orator,) made a descent on Sphacteria, 
and after a desperate contest, made prisoners of all the Lacedemo- 
nians on the island. The war, after being conducted with alternate 
success for some years longer, was finally brought to a temporary 
close, principally by the death of Cleon and of Brasidas, the opposing 
generals. Thus, in the tenth year of the contest, a peace for fifty 
years was concluded between the rival states and their confederates. 
Towns and prisoners were to be restored on both sides. This was 
usually called the Nician peace, because effected by Nicias, a prudent 
Athenian general, the rival and opposer of Cleon. 



CHAPTEE I?. 

THE SECOND PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

This agreement, however solemn, was brief in its duration. A 
new favourite of the people arose, destined to add greatly to the 
renown and calamities of Grreece. Alcibiades was a young man of 
the highest fortune, family, and personal beauty. His talents were 
exceedingly versatile, and though addicted to some vices, he was in 
a degree reclaimed by the lessons and example of Socrates, who was 
his teacher, and had already saved his life in battle, during the 
recent war. Ambition was from childhood his ruling passion, and 
7 



98 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

this soon found a field for action, in opposing Nicias before the 
people, and rekindling the war with Sparta. 

The Lacedemonians, apprized of certain intrigues designed to 
render Argos hostile toward them, sent ambassadors to Athens with 
full power to settle the question amicably; but Alcibiades, having 
artfully persuaded them to disclaim any such power before the 
people, at once cried out they were rogues and liars; and caused 
them to be dismissed in disgrace. A treaty was made with Argos, 
and Alcibiades declared general-in-chief; but his arms were soon 
turned in a more adventurous direction. The inhabitants of Egesta, 
in Sicily, applied to the Athenians for aid against Selinunta and 
Syracuse, and to prove the solvency of their treasury, exhibited to 
the Greek deputies a great number of gold and silver vases, of 
immense value, which they had borrowed for this occasion from the 
neighbouring states. Their request was complied with, and Alci- 
biades, Nicias, and Lamachus were despatched to their assistance 
with a fleet of one hundred ships, Nicias in vain opposing the 
expedition. The fleet was fitted out with great care and magnifi- 
cence, and the whole population flocked down the Piraeus to see it 
set sail. Eeaching its destination, it took Catana by surprise ; but 
Alcibiades was here recalled by the people, who had been excited 
by some absurd accusations. He started to return, but disappeared 
on the way, unwilling to face the prejudice of the fickle multitude. 
He was therefore in his absence condemned to death, his immense 
property confiscated, and an anathema pronounced against him by 
all the priests. 

Nicias, meanwhile, attacked Syracuse, and defeated its army 
under the walls. The contest was prolonged till Spring, when he 
received reinforcements from Athens, and seized Epipolse, a high 
hill commanding the city. Lamachus fell in a skirmish, and he was 
thus left in sole command. The Syracusans were greatly reduced, 
when they were relieved by G-ylippus, who came to their assistance 
with a large force from Lacedemon. He notified to Nicias that he 
would allow him five days to leave Sicily, to which the Athenian 
disdained returning an answer. After several battles,, fought with 
various success, Nicias was besieged in a strong position near the 
harbour, and sent an account of his situation to Athens. Eeinforce- 
ments were ordered, but before they could arrive, he met with 
further misfortunes, both by land and sea. 

His anxiety was at last relieved by the arrival of Demosthenes, 



GREECE. 99 

the Athenian admiral, with seventy-three ships and eight thousand 
fighting men. Again attacking Epipolse by night, they were terri- 
bly defeated, with a loss of two thousand men. Nicias would now 
have retreated from the island, but for an eclipse of the moon, which 
was declared by the augurs unfavourable for such an undertaking. 
Thus delayed, he was compelled to hazard another engagement by 
sea, in which the Athenians were again defeated. Moreover, the 
enemy shut up the mouth of the harbour, with a row of galleys 
secured by iron chains, and thus cut off their retreat. Attempting 
to force their way, they suffered another reverse, and were com- 
pelled to return. 

The Athenians, in opposition to the advice of Demosthenes, now 
determined to retreat by land to Oatana. Nearly forty thousand 
in number, they commenced their march, the third day after the 
sea fight. After being much harassed by the enemy, and losing 
great numbers, the army separated in the night, and Demosthenes, 
with the rear guard, lost his way. Surrounded in a narrow pass by 
the Syracusans, they fought with great bravery, but were at last 
compelled to surrender, to the number of six thousand. Nicias, with 
the remainder, overcome with thirst and fatigue, was defeated, and 
surrendered near the river Asinarius. Nicias and Demosthenes 
were cruelly put to death by the victors, in spite of the efforts of 
Grylippus to save them ; and the prisoners, many thousand in number, 
were confined in dungeons and sold as slaves. It is said that some 
of them, repeating scenes from the plays of Euripides, their masters 
were so aftected as to restore their freedom. 

The Athenians were at first unable to believe the terrible news 
of their misfortune ; and with customary precipitation condemned 
to death the first man who brought the tidings. Never had they 
found themselves in such a condition — destitute of money, ships, 
mariners, and soldiers — and expecting daily an invasion of Attica. 
They, however, busied themselves in retrieving their aifairs as far 
as possible; built new ships, retrenched all superfluous expense, 
and did their best to put the country in a state of defence. But 
from the time of this signal disaster, they no longer occupy the 
principal place in Grecian history ; reduced in spirits and resources, 
they ceased to attempt the regulation of the affairs of Greece, and 
were content with defending their own territory from the invasion 
and rapacity of their neighbours. 

Alcibiades, who had taken refuge with Tissaphernes, a high officer 



100 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY 



of the king of Persia, persuaded tlie people to change their form of 
government to that of an oligarchy; assuring them, if this was 
done, of the protection of that monarch. Accordingly all power 
was vested in a council of four hundred, with the shadow of a final 
appeal to the citizens. The new rulers, however, did not think fit 
to recall Alcibiades, dreading lest he should possess himself of the 
supreme authority. They conducted with great tyranny and rapacity, 
banishing and putting to death all obnoxious to them, and confis- 
cating their estates. 

The army, then at Samos, viewed these proceedings with dis- 
pleasure, and by advice of Thrasybulus, recalled Alcibiades, and 
made him their general. He prudently forbade an open attack 
upon the new authorities ; but these had become so unpopular, that 
they were obliged to fortify themselves at the Piraeus. The Lacede- 
monians took advantage of these disturbances, to renew the war; 
and defeated the small fleet of the Athenians. The people enraged, 
immediately deposed the four hundred, and entreated Alcibiades to 
return. He was, however, unwilling to present himself, after his 
long exile, without having performed some notable exploit; and 
immediately renewed the war with the Spartans. He twice defeated 
them at sea with great loss, took their whole fleet, reduced several 
revolted cities to submission, and sailed to Athens with a fleet of 
captured vessels loaded with spoils and tro23hies. He was received 
with the greatest rejoicing, his excommunication was taken off by 
the priests, and he was appointed commander-in-chief, with almost 
unlimited powers. 

Lysander, the Lacedemonian general, a man of the greatest bravery, 
and renowned for his craftiness, now sought Cyrus, son of the 
Persian king, and so far gained his confidence that he increased the 
pay of the Spartan mariners — a circumstance which operated injuri- 
ously upon the manning of the Athenian fleet. Alcibiades being 
compelled to leave it for the purpose of obtaining supplies, Antio- 
chus, who was left in command, in spite of strict orders to the 
contrary, sailed for Ephesus, engaged the Spartan fleet commanded 
by Lysander, and was defeated and killed. Alcibiades was again 
deposed by the disappointed populace, and Lysander, his year 
expiring, was succeeded by Callicratidas, a man of equal courage 
and far greater honesty. He besieged Conon, the Athenian com- 
mander in Mitylene, and took forty of his ships. Leaving a part 
of his fleet to continue the siege, with an hundred and twenty 



GREECE. 



101 



vessels lie engaged an Athenian fleet of superior force, wliich had 
been fitted out to oppose him. His ship was sunk, charging through 
the enemy, and seventy of his vessels were lost and taken: the 
Athenians lost twenty-live, with most of their crews. The Athenian 
commanders, immediately after their victory, were accused of not 
having taken sufficient pains in rescuing their men and recovering 
the bodies of the dead for burial. They alleged, reasonably, that a 
violent storm succeeding the action, had prevented the performance 
of this duty; yet six of them, one being the son of Pericles, were 
put to death, Socrates alone daring to raise his voice against the 
popular prejudice. 

Lysander had now been reappointed by the Spartans, and with 
his allies commenced operations by destroying Lampsacus. He was 
followed by the Athenian fleet to a place called ^gos Potamos. 
For five days the Athenians regularly went up to his squadron, and 
offered him battle, which being declined, they returned to the shore, 
and spent their time in amusement. Alcibiades, who was living in 
the neighbourhood, better informed of the nature of their enemy, 
entreated more caution, warned them of their danger, and offered his 
aid, with a body of Thracians, which was rejected. 

On the fifth day, after they had retired as usual, and were dis- 
persed along the shore, Lysander suddenly attacked them with his 
entire force, captured nearly their whole fleet, and took three thou- 
sand prisoners. By this signal victory, the war, which had lasted 
twenty-seven years, was in effect brought to a close ; and Lysander 
put all his prisoners to death, in retaliation for a similar act of the 
Athenians. He then sailed for their city, which he strictly block- 
aded by sea, while Agis and Pausanias, the Spartan kings, besieged 
it by land. Overcome by famine, the citizens were compelled to 
submit to the severest terms. All their ships, except twelve, were 
to be delivered up ; the fortifications and long walls to the Pirseus 
to be demolished — and the vanquished nation to serve its invaders 
as an allj both by land and sea, in all expeditions. Thus ended 
the Peloponnesian war, the longest and most destructive in which 
Greece had ever been involved. 

During the brilliant period of Athenian history, flourished many 
of their most celebrated authors and philosophers. Among the 
dramatists were JEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes; 
among the historians, Herodotus and Thucydides: Socrates and 
Plato, among the philosophers. 



102 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



CHAPTEB ?. 



THE-THIETY TYRANTS, THE EXPEDITION OF THE TEN THOUSAND, 
THE DEATH OP SOCRATES, AND THE THEBAN WAR. 

The democratic form of government at Athens was now abolished, 
and the people were compelled to submit to the rule of thirty officers, 
immediately under the influence of Lysander, and called, for their 
oppression, the Thirty Tyrants. Protected by a guard from Sparta, 
they pursued a course of violence, confiscation, and butchery. Among 
other atrocious acts, they procured the death of Alcibiades, then 
residing in Persia. Dreading the popular hatred, they invested three 
thousand of the citizens with some degree of power, and, by their 
assistance, kept the rest in awe. Socrates alone dared to raise his 
voice in opposition to their tyranny ; but imprisonments, confiscations, 
and murders still went on. 

At leng-th Thrasybulus, a patriotic citizen, who had long deplored 
the wretched fate of his country, resolved on making an effort to 
relieve it. With seventy men, he seized the citadel of Phyle, not 
far from Athens, The tyrants and their followers, marching out to 
attack it, were repulsed, and, on account of a great snow-storm, 
retreated to the city. Having increased his force to a thousand men, 
he sallied forth, and took the Piraeus. A battle instantly ensued, and 
the thirty, with their adherents, were put to flight. They appealed 
to Sparta, but Pausanias, commiserating the Athenians, refused to 
countenance them. Again taking up arms to regain their authority, 
they were defeated and put to death. An amnesty was now pro- 
posed by Thrasybulus, by which all past offences were overlooked. 
The ancient laws and magistracies were restored, and the remaining 
citizens, after so many years of misfortune and bloodshed, formed 
themselves once more under a partially democratic government. 

A scene was next enacted in Asia, in which the Greeks played a 
conspicuous part. Cyrus, the younger brother of Artaxerxes, king 
of Persia, had made several attempts to seize the throne, and as often 
been generously pardoned. He was even put in possession of exten- 
sive provinces. Resolved to make another trial, he enlisted as 



GEEECE. 



103 



many troops as possible, and among tliem a body of thirteen thou- 
sand Greeks, under command of Clearclius, an able Lacedemonian. 
Apprized of his intention on the march, they refused to proceed; 
but by kind treatment and an augmentation of pay, the adventurer 
induced them to continue in his service. After long and tedious 
marches, they arrived at Cunaxa, near Babylon, and engaged the 
royal army, immense in number, and commanded by Artaxerxes in 
person. The Greeks were successful in their charge, but their Per- 
sian allies were routed, their camp plundered, and Cyrus himself 
was killed fighting hand to hand with his brother. The battle was 
renewed, and the Greeks again came off victorious. Still, their situ- 
ation was exceedingly critical. In the heart of the enemies' country, 
two thousand miles from home, surrounded by hostile forces, and 
destitute of provisions, they still maintained a resolution not to yield. 

Their homeward march (the famous "Eetreat of the Ten Thou- 
sand ") was commenced, and the king's army followed in pursuit. 
By a treacherous device, Clearchus and four of the principal generals 
were persuaded to enter the tent of Tissaphernes, the Persian general ; 
their attendants were put to the sword, themselves bound, sent to 
the king, and beheaded. Others were appointed in their places, and 
among them Xenophon, the admirable historian of the expedition. 
Destroying all unnecessary baggage, they again set forth, and after 
a march of many months, fighting their way, and overcoming the 
diflBculties presented by nature — -crossing rivers, mountains, and des- 
erts — they finally succeeded in gaining a height, whence they could 
behold the Euxine. The whole army, weeping for joy, cried out, 
"Thalassa! Thalassa!" — "the sea! the sea!" They embraced their 
generals, and erected a trophy on the spot, as if for a victory. After 
many reverses, they regained their country and the shore of that sea 
so beloved by all the Grecians. 

At Athens a tragedy of the deepest character was now enacted. 
Socrates, the most virtuous and sublime of uninspired philosophers, 
had always been celebrated for his patriotism and bravery. His 
teachings had been the most remarkable which ever emanated from 
the soul of a heathen. He was now arraigned by his wicked and 
malicious enemies, on a charge of introducing new gods, and corrupt- 
ing the youth of Athens. At his trial he disdained the customary 
arts for exciting compassion, and his defence, reported by Plato, his 
pupil, is one of the most able, dignified, and eloquent compositions 
on record. He was nevertheless convicted; and treating such con- 



104 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

viction with just contempt, was sentenced to drink the juice of 
hemlock — a customary method of inflicting death. For thirty days, 
during which executions were suspended on account of the absence 
of the Sacred Galley,* his calm and cheerful deportment excited the 
admiration of all. He was offered the opportunity to escape, but 
refused, deeming it wrong to evade the action of the laws; and 
smilingly asked his friend if he knew of any place out of Attica 
where people did not die! He preserved the same cheerful and 
serene demeanour to the last, consoling his friends, enforcing the 
immortality of the soul, and finally taking the fatal draught with the 
utmost tranquillity and resignation. The scene is beautifully described 
by a poet, who, more fully and feelingly than any other, has illus- 
trated the scenery and associations of Greece : 

" Slow sinks, more lovely ere his race is run 
Along Morea's hills, the setting sun; 
Not as in Northern climes, obscurely bright, 
But one unclouded blaze of living light. 
O'er the hushed deep the yellow beam he throws, 
Gilds the gi'een wave, that trembles as it glows, 
On old ^gina's rock and Idra's isle 
The god of gladness sheds his panting smile; 
O'er his own regions lingering loves to shine, 
Though there his altars are no more divine. 
Descending fast, the mountain shadows kiss 
Thy glorious gulf, unconquered Salamis! 
Their azure arches through the long expanse, 
More deeply purpled, meet his mellowing glance. 
And tenderest tints, along their summits driven, 
Mark his gay course, and own the hues of heaven ; 
Till, darkly shaded from the land and deep. 
Behind his Delphian cliff he sinks to sleep. 

"On such an eve, his palest beam he cast, 
When, Athens, here thy wisest looked his last. 
How watched thy better sons his farewell ray. 
That closed then- murdered sage's latest day! 
Not yet — not yet — Sol pauses on the hill — 
The precious hour of parting lingers still ; 
But sad his light to agonizing eyes, 
And dark the mountain's once delightful dies. 

* A ship was yearly despatched by the Athenians to offer sacrifice in the temple 
of Apollo, at Delos, and until it returned, no person could legally be put to death. 




THE DEATH OF SOCRATES. 



— ^ — — "He extended the cup to Socrates But Socrates received 
it from him, indeed, ■with great cheerfulness ; neither tremhling nor suffering 
any alteration for the -worse in hia colour or countenance. — — — And at 
the same time, ending his discourse, he drank the poison with exceeding facil- 
ity and alacrity. Thus far, indeed, the greater part of us were tolerably well 
able to refrain from weeping , but -when we saw him drinking, we could no 
longer restrain our tears. — — — — — But Socrates, upon seeing this, 
esclaimed : "What are you doing, excellent men? for I principally sent 
away the women, lest they should produce a disturbance of this kind." — Thk 
PH.a!:Do OF Plato. 



GEEECE. IQQ 

Gloom o'er the lovely land he seemed to pour, 
The land where Phoebus never frowned before, 
But ere he sank beneath Cithseron's head 
The cup of wo was quaffed — the spirit fled ; 
The soul of him who scorned to fear or fly — 
Who lived and died, as none can live and die." 

After the death of this great man, when the people reflected on 
the true merits of the case, all Athens was overwhelmed with afflic- 
tion. The remorse of the people was excessive, and they bitterly 
reproached themselves for their cruelty and rashness. The schools 
were closed, and all public exercises suspended. Melitus, one of his 
accusers, was condemned to death, and the rest were banished. All 
who had any share in the persecution fell into such detestation, that 
no one would have any intercourse with them, and many of them, in 
despair, took their own lives. His statue by Lysippus was erected, 
a chapel was dedicated to him as a demi-god, and the people exhib- 
ited all that excessive revulsion of feeling which characterizes an 
ignorant and impulsive populace, and which especially distinguished 
the people of Athens. The impulses which prompted this persecu- 
tion, and the subsequent reaction of popular feeling, are well depicted 
by a distinguished American poet. 



"Far Humanity sweeps around; where to-day the martyr stands, 
On the morrow crouches Judas, with the silver in his hands. 
Far in front the cross stands ready, and the crackling fagots burn, 
While the hooting mob of yesterday in silent awe return 
To gather up the scattered ashes into History's golden urn." 

LOWELL. 

Sparta now held the chief position among the Grrecian communities. 
Agesilaus, the king, invaded Asia, and gained a signal victory over 
the Persians, under Tissaphernes. Through Persian influence and 
subsidies, a confederacy, headed by the Thebans, was formed against 
the Lacedemonians. 

The Athenians threw off their yoke, and Argos, Corinth, Euboea, 
and other states, joined in the new alliance. After various actions 
by land and sea, peace was again concluded, with disgraceful stipu- 
lations in favour of Persia. Thus relieved from her principal foe, 
Sparta proceeded to overawe the smaller hostile states ; and among 
other acts of authority, placed a garrison in the citadel of Thebes. 

Four years afterwards, an insurrection, headed by Pelopidas and 



jQg THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. 

Charon, and supported by seven thousand men from Athens, com- 
pelled the foreign troops to surrender. Agesilaus, on hearing the 
news, marched for Thebes with twenty thousand men; but, having 
ravaged the country, withdrew without an action. The reputation 
of the Thebans had now rivalled that of the Spartans for bravery 
and generalshi|) — at the battle of Tegea the Spartan force was 
routed by a third of its number, and lost both its generals. The 
Sacred Band, a body of three hundred men, of remarkable bravery 
and fidelity, contributed greatly to the success of the Thebans. 
Under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, the rising state became so pow- 
erful, that the Athenians, through jealousy, broke off their alhance, 
and joined the Spartans. 

The latter now determined on making a vigorous effort to crush 
their rival ; and Cleombrotus, their general, with twenty -four thousand 
foot and sixteen hundred horse, marched to the frontiers of Boeotia. 
Their demands were refused, and they invaded the country. Epam- 
inondas, with only six thousand troops, gave them battle near the 
little town of Leuctra. After a long and desperate conflict, the 
Spartan phalanx was broken by Pelopidas, at the head of the Sacred 
Band, Cleombrotus was slain, and his army put to flight. In this 
defeat, the most terrible ever experienced by the Lacedemonians, 
they and their allies lost four thousand men. 

Great numbers soon joined the Theban confederacy, and Epami- 
nondas, with seventy thousand men, overran Laconia. He did not 
attack the city of Sparta, but reinstated certain communities in their 
ancient rights, which had been taken away by the Lacedemonians. 

The defeated nation now applied for aid to its old enemies, Athens 
and Persia ; and succeeded in gaining that of the former. Pelopidas 
had been slain in an action against Alexander, king of Pherae, and 
all the confidence of the Thebans was now reposed in Epaminondas. 

Learning that the army of Argesilaus was on its way, he suddenly 
marched upon Sparta by night, intending to capture it by surprise. 
This attempt was defeated by the return of the king and a portion 
of his forces; a desperate contest ensued, and the Thebans, after 
having taken a part of the city, sent a detachment of horse to take 
possession of Mantinea. This was defeated by six thousand Athe- 
nian auxiliaries, who had just arrived by sea. 

Epaminondas followed with all his force, and with the enemy in 
close pursuit. Before reaching the town, he determined to halt, and 
give them battle. This battle, called that of Mantinea, from the 



GEEECE, 



107 



town near wbicli it was fought, was the most obstinate and the best- 
contested in the annals of Greece. The numbers engaged were 
greater than had ever fought in the civil dissensions, being nearly 
sixty thousand, of which the majority were Thebans and their allies. 
After the fighting hand to hand had continued for a long time with 
great slaughter, Epaminondas, at the head of a chosen troop, succeed- 
ed in breaking the Spartan phalanx, and securing the advantage, 
but was mortally wounded in the hour of triumph. Being carried 
to the camp, and expressing anxiety about his arms, and the fate of 
the battle, his shield was shown him, and he was told that the The- 
bans were victorious. He replied^ " It is well ! " and drawing the head 
of the javelin from his wound, instantly expired. 

With Epaminondas fell the power and glory of Thebes. A peace 
soon followed, by which it Avas agreed that each state should hold 
what it possessed, and be independent of any other. Agesilaus soon 
afterwards made an expedition into Egypt, where he controlled and 
settled the dynasty of that country, and finally died in Africa at the 
age of eighty, having reigned forty years. The Athenians were 
again engaged in war with their neighbours, B. C. 858, which, how- 
ever, was not of long duration, or marked by important events. 



C H A P i- £ R Y I . 

PHILIP OE MACEDON. 

A NEW and formidable power had now grown up in Greece, and 
began to take an active part in the international interests. Philip, 
w^ho began, to reign over Macedon in the one hundred and fifth 
olympiad, and the twenty-fourth year of his age, was a man of the 
greatest sagacity and most comprehensive ambition. He was the 
most able general of his day, having learned the art of war under 
Epaminondas. At his accession to the throne, he was environed 
with enemies. The Pasonians and Illyrians were menacing his 
frontiers, and the Macedonians had lately lost four thousand men in 
a battle with the latter. There were, moreover, two pretenders to his 
crown, one supported by Athens, and the other by the Thracians. 



1QQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

His first care was to gain the confidence of his people and to 
improve their military discipline, and with this view he invented 
the famous Macedonian phalanx, consisting of eight thousand pike- 
men formed into an impenetrable square. To this piece of tactics the 
nation was indebted for many of its subsequent victories. Having 
defeated the Athenians who espoused the cause of his rival, he 
turned his arms against the Pseonians and Illyrians, subdued them 
both, and compelled them to restore their conquests. Having seized 
certain disputed cities, he discovered at Crenides (which he named 
Philippi) a most productive gold mine ; which was of great use to 
him afterwards, especially in negotiation. 

The states of Greece at this time were in open dissension. The 
Phocians, who had charge of the temple of Apollo, at Delphos, had 
ploughed up a piece of ground belonging to the god ; being cited, 
and fined heavily by the Amphictyonic council, they resisted, and, 
encouraged by the Spartans, seized the temple. The council, aided 
by the Thebans, Locrians, Thessalians, and others, decliared war 
against the contumelious state; Athens and Sparta supported her. 
The conflict which ensued, called "The Sacred War," was distin- 
guished only by those cruelties and reprisals which usually charac- 
terize a religious contest; the prisoners were mutually put to 
death, much to the satisfaction of Philip, who was pleased to see the 
Greeks wasting their forces against each other. About the conclu- 
sion of this war, his son, Alexander the Great, was born, on the 
same night when the temple of Diana was fired at Ephesus. 

Having destroyed Methone, which obstructed his designs on 
Thrace, Philip marched to the assistance of the Thessalians, who 
were oppressed by Lycophron, of Pheraj, 

Attacked by the Macedonian, six thousand of his men were slain 
in a battle, and three thousand of his Phocian allies being taken 
prisoners, were thrown by Philip into the sea, as being guilty of 
sacrilege. He would next have taken possession of Thermopylae, 
the key of Attica, but for the opposition of the Athenians, who, 
urged by the famous Demosthenes, occupied the pass before him. 

This distinguished patriot and orator was the son of an armourer 
at Athens, who left him a large fortune. His first appearance as a 
public speaker was in- a suit against his guardians, who had man- 
aged his estate dishonestly. He laboured under many disadvantages : 
such as stammering, a feeble voice, and natural awkwardness. All 
these he overcame by severe study, exercise, and discipline; some- 



GREECE. 



109 



times, it is said, sliutting liimself up for montlis in an apartment 
underground, and shaving half his head, lest he should be tempted 
to emerge. He was also instructed in the art of elocution by 
Satjrus, an able actor. 

He finally attained such a degree of eloquence and celebrity, that 
people flocked from all parts of Greece to listen to him ; and his 
countrymen were so much under his control, that Philip declared 
him more formidable than all the fleets and armies of Athens. 

Philip, not wishing to incur the enmity of the Athenians at present, 
directed his hostilities against the Olynthians, took their city, and 
put his two brothers, who had taken refuge there, to death. He 
also espoused the cause of Thebes against the Phocians, and com- 
pelled the latter to surrender at discretion. Their fate was referred 
to the Amphictyons, who decreed that all their cities should be 
demolished, the fugitives excommunicated, and the remaining citi- 
zens dispersed in villages, and burdened with heavy tribute, until 
the loss sustained by the temple at their hands was made up. Their 
seat in the council was likewise declared forfeited, and Philip 
afterwards contrived to have it conferred on himself 

The king, pursuing his system of self-aggrandizement, offered his 
protection to the Argives, Messenians, and Thebans. To counter- 
balance this league, the S|)artans pressed a union between their state 
and Athens, and Philip avoided coming to an open rupture. On an 
artful pretence, however, he sent a body of troops into Euboea, 
seized the citadels, and established a government of three kings or 
tyrants. Assistance being supplicated by the inhabitants from the 
Athenians, they despatched a few troops under Phocion, a com- 
mander worthy of the early days of the republic. His manners and 
countenance were rigid and severe, but his heart was humane and 
open. Being rallied before the people on account of the severity of 
his aspect, he replied, addressing the citizens, "The sternness of my 
countenance never made any of you sad, but the mirth of these 
sneerers has cost you many a tear." 

In assemblies, his unstudied eloquence rivalled that of Demosthe- 
nes ; yet he was so superior to mere popular approbation, that once, 
being applauded by the people, he asked a friend what weak or 
improper sentiment had escaped him. He was chosen to command 
their armies forty-five times, without any application for the office. 

Such was the man, who, though strongly inclined to peace, was 
chosen to oppose the selfish and ambitious designs of Macedon. 



110 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. 

Inflamed by the ardent invectives of Demosthenes, the people now 
entered into open hostilities with Philip, Phocion compelled him 
to raise the siege of Byzantium ; drove him out of the Hellespont ; and 
recovered many fortresses which he had seized. The Athenians next 
blockaded all his ports, and cut off his commerce. He would now 
willingly have made peace, and Phocion supported the proposal; 
but the people, influenced by Demosthenes, refused. 

The king, however, artfully contrived to revive the dissension 
concerning sacrilege, among the lesser states, and was appointed com- 
mander in chief to the Amphictyons, which he used as a mere mask 
to cover his ambitious designs on Attica. 

His intentions at last being evident, in an assembly of the 
Athenians, Demosthenes alone ventured to ascend the tribunal, and 
animate them to resistance. In a speech of great force and eloquence, 
he recommended that immediate assistance be despatched to the 
Thebans, whose territories were menaced; his advice was followed, 
and he was sent in person with a large force. The battle took place 
on the plain of Cheronoea, the allied forces amounting to thirty 
thousand, and those of Philip to a little more. On the one side were 
the Thebans, headed by their Sacred Band; the Athenians, com- 
manded by Lysicles and Chares ; the Corinthians, and the allies from 
Peloponnesus. On the other, Alexander headed a chosen body of 
Macedonians, supported by the renowned Thessalian cavalry; and 
the king himself commanded the phalanx. The prince, after rout- 
ing the Sacred Band, who sustained their ancient reputation, and 
died at their posts almost to a man, attacked the Thebans; the 
Athenians, meanwhile, putting to flight the enemy opposed to them. 
Carrying the pursuit too far, they were attacked in flank by the 
phalanx, and completely defeated. Demosthenes himself, throwing 
away his shield, fled among the first ; and the whole army was soon 
routed or forced to surrender. A thousand of the Athenians lay 
dead on the field, two thousand were captured, and the loss of the 
Thebans was equally severe. 

Philip, however, treated the defeated states with mildness, and 
agreed on a treaty of peace; hoping at some future time to unite 
them under himself in an attack on the Persian empire. Lysicles 
was condemned to death by his fellow-citizens ; but nothing could 
shake their confidence in Demosthenes. His counsels were followed 
throughout, and for the assistance which he gave from his own 
resources, it was publicly proposed that a golden crown should be 



GREECE. 



Ill 



•awarded him. On this occasion, (the person who suggested this pro- 
posal being impeached by JEschines, the celebrated orator and rival 
of Demosthenes,) occurred that famous contest of eloquence in which 
^schines lost his cause, and was banished from Athens. 

Philip was now chosen general-in-chief of the Grecian forces, and 
prepared to invade Persia. Consulting the oracle as to the success 
of his undertaking, he received this ambiguous response: "The 
victim is already crowned, and will soon be sacrificed." This he 
interpreted in his favour, but it was soon verified in a different 
manner; the king being murdered at a festival by Pausanias, who 
was supposed to have been instigated by Olympias, the queen. 



CHAPTER ?H 



THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER, 



The news of Philip's death was received with great joy in Greece, 
and especially in Athens, where the people who had a little while 
before appointed him their chief, and loaded him with adulations, 
now crowned themselves with garlands, and sacrificed to the gods 
in gratitude. 

Alexander, already distinguished, succeeded him. His ruling pas- 
sion was a love of glory, and that of the most distinguished kind. 
When young, being asked if he would contend at the Olympic 
games, "Yes," he replied, "if I can have kings to contend with." 
He lamented the conquests of his father, fearing that his own 
exploits and renown would be anticipated. At an early age, he 
astonished the Persian ambassadors by inquiring the road to Asia, 
the resources of their king, the order of battle, and the manner of 
their government. 

His chief teacher was Aristotle, to whom doubtless are owing 
those traits of magnanimity and virtue which occasionally shone 
forth in a long career of conquest and violence; and of him he 
learned that true, manly eloquence, which is founded on facts and 



112 



THE TEOl'LE'S BOOK OF lilSTOKY. 



common sense. His spirit of ambition and exclusiveness showed 
itself in a letter, still extant, in whicli he complains to Aristotle 
that he had made public certain portions of that learning, of which 
they had before been in exclusive possession. 

He was attached to the arts, and was a discriminating patron of 
music, painting, sculpture, and architecture. He was fond of poetry, 
and almost idolized Homer, the poet of battle and romance. 

On his accession to the throne, he found himself, like his father, 
surrounded by dangers on every side; both from the barbarous 
nations, ready to fling off the yoke imposed by Philip, and from 
the Greeks, who were resolved to seize this opportunity to recover 
their liberties, in reality subverted. Disregarding the counsels of 
those who advised a temporizing policy, he took up arms at once, 
crossed the Danube, defeated the king of the Triballi in a great 
battle, and overawed the surrounding nations. The Thebans, at the 
instigation of Demosthenes, and encouraged by a report of his death, 
had risen and massacred many of the Macedonian garrison; he 
appeared before their cities in an incredibly short time, and demanded 
that Phoenix and Prothules, the chief insurgents, should be delivered 
up, offering a general amnesty to all Avho would join him. The 
Thebans, in return, contemptuously demanded Antipater and Phi- 
lotas, two of his first generals; and appealed to all the states for 
assistance in defending the liberties of Greece. 

Battle being joined, they defended themselves with great bravery, 
though vastly outnumbered ; but, being attacked in the rear by the 
garrison from the citadel, were totally routed, and mostly cut to 
pieces. The city was plundered, and razed to the grotmd, and the 
inhabitants, to the number of thirty thousand, were sold as slaves ; 
the priests and the descendants of the poet Pindar excepted. Six 
thousand had perished in the battle. Those who escaped were 
received with the greatest kindness at Athens. 

That city now appeared to lie at his mercy, and, knowing that 
the popular love of liberty was kept alive by the eloquence of their 
orators, he demanded that ten of these should be surrendered into 
his hands. On this occasion, Demosthenes related to the people the 
fable of the wolves demanding from the sheep, as a condition of 
peace, that their watch-dogs should be delivered up ; this increased 
their reluctance, and Alexander, through the mediation of Demades, 
his personal friend, at last waived his demand. From a spirit of 
policy he even bestowed flattering attentions on the commonwealth. 



GEEECE. 



113 



No longer dreading any domestic opposition, he now summoned 
at Corinth an assembly from all the communities of Greece, and 
proposed that the expedition against Persia, projected by his father, 
should be intrusted to him. Animated by the love of glory, and 
a remembrance of ancient invasion and injury, they all consented, 
with the exception of Lacedemon. This decision was destined to 
have a most important and controlling influence on human affairs. 

He settled the affairs of Macedon, during his absence, by appoint- 
ing Antipater viceroy, with a force of twenty-four thousand troops. 
He then exhausted his treasures and revenues in providing for his 
friends, and being asked what he had reserved for himself, only 
replied, "Hope!" 

He set out for Asia in the spring, with an army of thirty thou- 
sand foot, and four thousand cavalry — all veteran soldiers, inured to 
hardship and the art of war. So far advanced in age were most of 
them, that they are said to have had the venerable appearance of a 
senate. "With this force, destined to decide the fate of Greece and 
all the oriental world, he arrived at the Hellespont. Steering his 
own galley, he crossed without opposition ; a neglect which proved 
the destruction of his opponents. From Lampsacus, which was 
saved from his anger by Anaximenes, his former tutor, he pro- 
ceeded to Troy, and caused funeral games to be performed in honour 
of the heroes of the Iliad. He is even said to have run naked three 
times around the vast mound which contains the relics of Achilles. 

Darius, king of Persia, treated this invasion with the utmost con- 
tempt, and sent particular directions to his satraps for the treatment 
of Alexander and his army, when captured. Arriving on the banks 
of the Granicus, a river of Phrygia, the invaders found an army of 
an hundred and ten thousand men, commanded by Memnon and 
Arsites, drawn up on the opposite shore, to dispute their passage. 
Against the advice of his ofl&cers, Alexander determined to seize 
this occasion of impressing the enemy with a belief in the invinci- 
bility of the Greek forces; and with a large detachment of horse, 
plunged into the river. The contest was obstinately disputed, but 
the Macedonians were at first repulsed from landing, by Memnon, 
the ablest and most resolute commander of the Persians. Alexan- 
der hastened to the head of the column, and by desperate exertions 
succeeded in gaining the shore. The Macedonians followed, and the 
battle became general. Spithradates, son in law of Darius, was 
killed fighting hand to hand with the king, and the entire army of 
8 



114 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the Persians was routed, except a large body of Greek auxiliaries, 
soldiers of fortune. These being refused permission to retreat, the 
battle was renewed, and the most terrible part of the contest ensued. 
These mercenaries, fighting desperately, were all cut to pieces except 
two thousand, who were made prisoners ; and the Macedonians lost 
more in this conflict than in the other. 

After this victory, he proceeded to make himself master of the 
cities, some of which, as Sardis and Ephesus, submitted without 
much resistance ; others, as Miletus and Halicarnassus, he took by 
siege, and razed the latter to the ground. Among other chiefs, he 
was sought and faithfully served by Mithridates, king of Pontus, an 
ancestor of that monarch of the same name who at a later period 
figures so famously in the Koman wars. 

Opening his campaign early the next year, Alexander proceeded 
to subdue the maritime provinces. He took Celsenge, after a siege 
of sixty days, and then advanced to Gordium, the capital of the 
mythological king Midas. At this place was a chariot, in the fast- 
enings of which was such an intricate knot, that no one had ever 
been able to untie it, though, according to an ancient oracle, the man 
who could perform this feat should possess the empire of Asia. 
Alexander, after a number of futile attempts to disunite it in a 
legitimate way, drew his sword impatiently, and cut it apart, which 
was hailed as a fulfilment of the prediction 

Subduing Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, he advanced upon Tarsus, 
and arrived just in time to save it, the city having been fired by the 
retreating Persians. Darius now marched against him with an 
immense army, securing the passes, lest his enemy should escape ; — 
an utterly needless precaution, for Alexander was . equally anxious 
to stake the empire upon a battle. Long descriptions are given of 
the pomp and magnificence which distinguished the royal army. 
Immense treasures, costly apparel, numerous concubines, and a vast 
host of domestic attendants, gave it rather the appearance of a pro- 
gress of pleasure than a formidable armament. This useless and 
cumbrous splendour excited only the contempt of the Greeks, and 
their rapacity to obtain possession of such valuable spoils. After 
various manoeuvres, the hostile armies met in the neighbourhood 
of Issus. 

Like the locality of Marathon and other celebrated battles, the 
scene of action was a plain lying between the mountains and the sea. 
The river Pinarus flowed through it, dividing it into two parts nearly 



GEEECE. 



115 



equal. The Macedonian phalanx was composed of six bodies, each 
commanded by a distinguished officer ; the other forces were skilfully 
distributed, and Alexander, in person, directed the whole. The 
field could hardly contain the immense forces of Darius, but he 
placed in the centre thirty thousand Greek stipendiaries, the most 
effective part of his army. The front line was drawn up on the bank 
of the river to oppose the crossing of Alexander. The latter, how- 
ever, at the head of his men, plunged boldly into the stream, and 
directed his first attack against the person of the king; who was 
forced to leap from his chariot, and betake himself to another. The 
Persians were soon routed, and Darius, with the greater part of his 
army, involved in a common flight, were pursued by the Macedo- 
nians. The mercenaries, however, made a vigorous and successful 
resistance, until Alexander, returning from the pursuit, attacked 
them in flank, and completed the victory. It is said that in this 
battle seventy thousand of the Persians perished, and that forty 
thousand were taken prisoners. The wife, mother, and children of 
the defeated prince, being found in his camp, were treated by the 
victor with the greatest courtesy and respect. 

All Phoenicia, except Tyre, now submitted. The Persian fleet 
was defeated at sea, and great part of it captured. Damascus, in 
which the royal treasures had been deposited, surrendered to Par- 
menio. The Persian monarch, in a haughty message, demanded his 
family, on paying ransom. This was refused, and he was told that 
they should be restored without ransom, but only on his submission. 

Alexander now resolved to form the siege of Tyre. This cele- 
brated city was built upon an island, about three-quarters of a mile 
from the shore. It was surrounded by high walls, and was con- 
sidered almost impregnable. The inhabitants, encouraged by prom- 
ises of assistance from Carthage, a powerful Phoenician colony, 
resolved to hold out. They killed the Macedonian ambassadors, and 
threw their bodies from the walls into the sea. Enraged at this act 
of violence, Alexander resolved never to desist until he had taken 
their city, and razed it to the ground. 

An immense pier, principally of wood, had been carried fi-om the 
main land nearly to the city, when it was burned by a fire-ship sent 
out by the Tyrians. This disaster having been repaired, and the 
mole carried yet further, a furious storm again sAvept away all the 
structure. Undismayed, the besiegers immediately commenced 
anew, and Alexander with a fleet protected the works, and offered 



116 



THE PEOTLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY 



battle to the Tyrians. This they dechned; and withdrew their gal- 
leys into the harbour. 

The pier was once more advanced to the walls, and an attack com- 
menced simultaneously by land and sea, when a storm so shattered 
the vessels as to render it ineffectual. The joy of the besieged was 
somewhat alloyed by news from Carthage, that the Syracusans had 
attacked that city, and all her resources were necessary for self- 
defence. The Tyrians, however, resolved to continue their resistance 
to the last. The women and children were all sent to Carthage, and 
every preparation was made to resist the invaders, who were again 
sharply assaulting the walls. The greatest ingenuity was displayed 
in warding off the force of the engines, in destroying the ships, and 
annoying the besiegers. They shot immense arrows studded with 
scythes, and showered burning sand among the besieging squadron. 

At length, a breach being made in the walls, Alexander, with the 
Argyraspides (Silver-shield bearers), stormed the town, which was 
defended with great bravery. The fle.et forced its way into the har- 
bour, and the citizens being defeated, an indiscriminate slaughter 
took place. A vast number were slain, two thousand were crucified 
after the victory, and thirty thousand sold as slaves. Of Tyre, the 
earliest and first great commercial city in the world, nothing now 
remains but a small village, connected with the land by a mole, 
formed by accumiilations of sand around the pier constructed by 
Alexander; and, according to prophecy, fishermen now "dry their 
nets " where the stately city once raised its walls and palaces. 

Darius now offered further conditions, so advantageous that Par- 
menio, a prudent officer, observed that he would certainly accept 
these, were he Alexander. "And so would I," replied the king, 
" were I Parmenio." From Tyre he marched to Jerusalem, intending 
to punish the inhabitants for their contumacy in refusing him pro- 
visions during the siege ; but he was pacified by Jaddua, the high- 
priest, who went out to meet him with a select body of citizens, and 
showed him the prophecies of Daniel, in which his conquests were 
foretold. He thence proceeded to Gaza, took it after an obstinate 
resistance, put ten thousand of its defenders to the sword, and, in 
emulation of Achilles, dragged the body of Boetus, the commander, 
around the walls, behind his chariot. 

Leaving a garrison here, he next directed his forces against Egypt, 
which submitted without resistance. On this occasion he made a 
journey of twelve days through the desert, to visit the celebrated 



GREECE. 



117 



temple of Jupiter Amnion, situated in a fertile oasis in the wilderness. 
On his way, he founded the city of Alexandria, afterwards one of 
the most famous commercial cities in the world. Arrived, an oracle 
uttered by the complaisant priest declared him to be the son of 
Jupiter, a title which he thenceforth was strenuous in asserting. 
Returning to Asia, he found Darius prepared to renew the contest, 
with greatly increased forces ; and having crossed the Tigris, received 
overtures from that monarch, with advantageous proposals for peace. 
He rejected them, with the haughty reply that the world would not 
admit of two suns, or of two sovereigns ; and both parties prepared to 
stake the empire upon a last battle. Darius, with a vast but undis- 
ciplined and irregular army, was encamped near the city of Arbela, 
from which the battle receives its name. On the side of the invader 
were less than fifty thousand troops, but mostl}"" veterans, and accus- 
tomed to victory. The only really formidable force in the Persian 
army, was a body of Greek mercenaries, who fought, as usual, with 
great skill and courage. 

The charge, led by Alexander in person, was successful; and 
Darius himself narrowly escaped death at the hand of his adversary. 
The Persians were defeated on every side, and such terrible havoc 
was made among their disordered and flying masses, that it is said 
(probably with exaggeration) that three hundred thousand were put 
to the sword. Darius fled, with his enemy in hot pursuit, to Arbela, 
whence he barely escaped Avith the loss of his treasure, his army, 
and his throne. 

This decisive victory, indeed, gave Alexander full possession of 
the empire of Asia. Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, and all the Persian 
provinces, surrendered without opposition. In the last-named city 
he found and relieved four thousand Greek captives, who had been 
barbarously mutilated by their conquerors. Having found immense 
treasures here, the Macedonians abandoned themselves to revelry 
and dissipation. The king, at a banquet, overcome with wane, was 
persuaded by Thais, an Athenian courtezan, to avenge the injuries 
of Greece by firing the magnificent palace of the Persian king. 
Seizing a torch, he led the way ; his chief officers and many of the 
army followed; and the splendid edifice was soon reduced to ruin. 

Meanwhile, Darius pursued his flight to Ectabana, the capital of 
Media. Being there endangered by the treachery of his officers, 
the Greeks in his service offered to protect him to the last; a devo- 
tion which he magnanimously rejected, thinking it unbecoming a 



118 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

monarcli to confide his safety in the hands of any but his own 
people. The Greeks then withdrew to Alexander, and were enrolled 
among his forces. 

The traitors now seized Darius, and threw him in chains, and 
being closely pursued by the Macedonians, left him mortally wounded 
on the road-side. Being there found by the victorious pursuers, he 
sent a message of thanks to Alexander for the kindness bestowed 
upon his family, charged him to avenge his murder, and expired. 
His request was complied with, and Bessus, the principal traitor, when 
taken, was tied to four trees bent to the earth, and thus torn asunder. 

The character of Alexander was now tarnished by the execution 
of Parmenio and his son Philotas, two most faithful officers, whom 
he condemned on suspicion of a plot. He next, in a fit of drunken 
rage, at a banquet, slew his friend Clitus, who had saved his life at 
the passage of the Granicus. The most violent remorse succeeded. 

After some doubtful successes against the Scythians, he determined 
on attempting the conquest of India, a country whose vast extent 
and niimerous nations were as yet little known. Proceeding toward 
the Indus, he received the submission of most of the nations on his 
route; but near the Hydaspes, met with a fierce resistance from 
Porus, a native king, of great power and ability ; who was, however, 
defeated with much loss. Being asked by the victor how he would 
desire to be treated, he replied, "Like a king !" Alexander, admiring 
his fortitude, restored and augmented his kingdom, and the Indian 
prince remained faithful to his interests ever afterwards. 

The invader thence proceeded further into the interior, exacting- 
submission from the native tribes, and amusing his mind by inquiries 
into the Braminical philosophy. The Macedonians, worn out with 
marches and encounters, at last refused to accompany their leader 
any further, and he was compelled to direct his course to the south- 
ward, in search of the Indus. Arrived there, he voyaged down the 
river, and reached the Indian Ocean. Here the whole army, accus- 
tomed to the tideless shores of the Mediterranean, beheld with 
astonishment the extraordinary periodical rise and fall of the sea. 

Weeping that he could carry his arms no farther, he made 
preparation for the homeward march, Nearchus, with a fleet, coasted 
along the shore, seeking the Persian gulf, and the main body of the 
army proceeded by land. After experiencing great want and hard- 
ship, they arrived at the rich province of Gedrosia, and abandoned 
themselves to intemperance and excess. Alexander himself, in 



GEEECE. 



119 



emulation of Bacchus, who had conquered India before, was carried 
along on a platform drawn by eight horses, where, with his chief 
officers, he passed the time in revelry, the whole army following his 
example. In this manner he proceeded toward Babylon. 

It would seem that, satiated with conquest, or despairing of 
effecting greater achievements, he now gave himself up entirely to 
drinking and revelry. It was thought that he attempted thus to 
drown remorse for his treatment of Parmenio, Clitus, and other 
friends who had perished by his violence. He entered Babylon, 
and the drinking-bouts became more frequent and protracted. In 
one of these, his dearest friend Hephestion was carried off by excess. 
Alexander shortly followed him; for having spent two nights in 
continued debauchery, he fell senseless on the floor, and was imme- 
diately seized with a violent fever, which in a few days proved mortal. 
Being asked to whom he would leave the empire, he replied, "To 
the worthiest!" and then expired, at the age of thirty-two, after a 
reign of twelve years, mostly passed in war and conquest. 



CHAPTER Till. 



FROM THE DEATH OP ALEXANDER TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST. 



We return to the affairs of Greece, with which the wars of 
Alexander have little connection, except as being principally carried 
on by Greek forces. The Lacedemonians, who had never concurred 
in the expedition to Persia, after his departure, under their king 
Agis, organized a confederacy to check the growing power of 
Macedon. With an army of twenty-two thousand, the Spartan 
king attacked Megalopolis, a city in the Peloponnesus, under the 
control of the enemy. Antipater, the viceroy, engaged in action 
against him with a greatly superior force, and gained the victory, 
though with a loss of three thousand five hundred men. The 
Spartans lost an equal number, and among them Agis, one of the 
wisest and most patriotic of their kings. 

This insurrection crushed, little of interest is found in the subse- 



120 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

quent history of Sparta; and the efforts of Antipater were directed 
to disarm opposition from other quarters. Demosthenes falling 
under a suspicion of having received bribes from Macedon, was 
condemned by the Areopagus to fine and banishment. Thus freed 
from the only man whose name was formidable to his designs, the 
viceroy issued a decree, in which authority over all the Grrecian 
states was directly assumed. Under Leosthenes, an Athenian, 
however, the people prepared for a vigorous resistance; and the 
death of Alexander, which occurred about this time, added to their 
confidence. Demosthenes was recalled, and Antipater, engaging the 
confederates with inferior forces, was defeated, and forced to take 
refuge in Thessaly. The Greeks, elated with their success, would 
now have openly declared war upon Macedon, but were restrained 
by the prudence of Phocion. 

Eeceiving reinforcements, Antipater renewed the war; and soon 
engaged the Greeks, and utterly defeated them. Athens, the city 
most obnoxious to his displeasure, was only spared on condition 
that it should receive a Macedonian garrison, and deliver up the 
prime mover of hostilities, Demosthenes. That great man, knowing 
the danger of his situation, fled to Calauria, a neighbouring island, 
and took refuge in the temple of Neptune. Pursued thither by the 
emissaries of Antipater, he ended his life by taking poison from a 
ring or bracelet which he always carried. A statue was afterwards 
erected to him, and other honours to his memory were decreed 
by the Athenians. 

The Macedonian victor used his power with such moderation and 
equity as to gain from the different states the title of Protector of 
Greece. The ^tolians alone continued their resistance, but were 
finally defeated, and compelled to submit. Soon afterwards he died, 
at a great age, leaving the government of Macedon and Greece to 
Polyperchon, one of the generals of Alexander. 

Under his administration the brave and virtuous Phocion was 
condemned to death by the Athenians, for having opposed a change 
in the form of government. "With characteristic magnanimity, he 
sought only to save the lives of those condemned to die with him, 
and charged his son to forget the injustice of the people. A decree 
was even passed, prohibiting any person from supplying fire for his 
funeral pile. The last honours were paid to his remains by a woman 
of Megara, who secretly preserved his ashes in an urn buried under 
her hearth. As in the case of Socrates and other illustrious victims 



GREECE. 



121 



to tlie caprice of the Athenians, a great revulsion of feeling soon 
followed. liis accusers were, as usual, condemned to death, his 
ashes honourably brought to Athens, and a statue erected to his 
memory. 

Polyperchon, a man of weak and cruel disposition, was, in his 
turn, dethroned by Cassander, supported by other inheritors of the 
power of Alexander. Greece and Macedon were now, for a consid- 
erable time, the prey of rival pretenders to the throne. 

About this time an immense army of Gauls, three hundred 
thousand in number, issuing from their forests in the west, overran 
a great part of southern Europe. They took and plundered the 
city of Eome, invaded Macedon, slew the king, and directed their 
march to Greece. The states, with great resolution, united to oppose 
them, and they were repulsed with much loss in several attempts to 
force their way through the straits of Thermopylge. Succeeding in 
gaining the interior, by the way of Mount (Eta, they proceeded 
toward Delphos, intending to plunder the temple. The inhabitants 
bravely repulsed their invaders from the sacred precints, and, aided 
by a severe storm, slew vast numbers. Brennus, their leader, in 
despair, put an end to his life, and the remainder attempted a retreat. 
But of all the multitudes which had passed from Macedon into 
Greece, it is said, not one returned to his native country. 

Among others who seized the throne of Macedon in these unset- 
tled times, was Pyrrhus, the celebrated king of Epirus and invader 
of Italy. He also made an assault iipon the city of Sparta with a 
great force, but was driven back by its defenders, and his son 
Ptolemy was killed in the retreat. He soon afterwards marched 
upon Argos, and was there slain in a fight ivithin the walls. 

Antigonus, son of the famous Demetrius Poliorcetes (taker of 
cities), had been deposed by Pyrrhus. He now reascended the 
throne, and defeated a body of Gauls making a fresh irruption into 
his kingdom. He compelled the Athenians to receive a Macedonian 
garrison; and was entertaining designs upon the liberties of all 
Greece, when death ended his ambitious projects. His son Deme- 
trius took the throne, and was in his turn succeeded by another 
Antigonus, his kinsman. 

A fresh power, the Achaean League, now sprang up, which 
promised fairly to restore in a great degree the ancient spirit of 
freedom among the Grecian republics. It was a confederacy for 
mutual defence first formed in Achaia, and afterward extended among 



122 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. 

many of the states, on somewhat the same plan as the American 
Union. By the wisdom and patriotism of this association, and of 
their general, Aratiis, nearly all the Greek communities were placed 
upon an independent footing; but its increasing power excited the 
jealousy of the ^tolians and the Spartans, now greatly degenerated 
from the ancient simplicity of their manners. 

The Acha3ans, attacked and defeated by Cleomenes, king of Sparta, 
solicited the aid of Antigonus, and placed him at the head of their 
confederacy; a movement so unpopular, that most of the Grecian' 
states espoused the cause of Sparta. She was, nevertheless, defeated, 
and Cleomenes was forced to fly into Egypt. Philip, the successor 
of Antigonus, further assisted the Acha3ans, and reduced the strength 
of their enemies, the ^tolians. Hoping to make himself master of 
all Greece, he entered into an engagement with Hannibal, then at 
war with the Eomans, that each should assist the other in their 
respective designs on Greece and Italy. Philip, however, in 
attempting to carry out his plan, was defeated by the Bomans, who 
immediately entered into an alliance with ^tolia and Sparta, and, 
according to their customary policy, commenced securing a footing 
for themselves in the country (B. C. 208). The Achseans, com- 
manded by Philopoemen, carried on the war six years longer, when 
it was concluded by a peace between Philip and the Romans. 

This, however, was not of long duration. Philip having invaded 
Egypt, and encroached on some of the territories of Greece, was 
forbidden by the Roman senate to continue his hostilities. The 
king refusing compliance, war ensued, and the Romans, under Flam- 
inius, soon compelled him to make peace upon very severe conditions ; 
a restoration of his Grecian conquests being one (B. C. 199), 

Under pretext of supporting the liberties of Greece, the Romans 
soon contrived to acquire a strong ascendancy. The vEtolians and 
the Acheeans were overawed in succession; and a thousand of the 
principal men of the latter were transported to Rome, charged with 
aiding Perseus, the son of Philip, and now king of Macedon. The 
king himself, defeated in a great battle, was carried to Rome, where 
he put an end to his life by starving himself in prison. With him 
fell the last hope of Grecian independence. Macedon was formed 
into a Roman province, and the remaining states of Greece soon 
shared the same fate (B. C. 163). 

From this time the history of Greece seems rather to belong to 
that of the widely-extended Roman empire; and is principally to 



GKEECE. 



123 



be found in tlie humanizing influence wliicli lier art and literature 
exerted over the vigorous but unpolished minds of her conquerors. 

While the joke was yet fresh, occasional disputes broke forth; 
always ending in accession of power to the Eomans. Metellus, and 
afterwards the consul Mummius, defeated them successively, and 
the conquest of Grreece was completed by the taking of Corinth, 
B. C. 145, the same year in which Carthage was added to the 
empire. The city was plundered, and the finest works of art des- 
troyed. It is said the rude soldiers were seen throwing dice upon 
the paintings of the greatest masters. Many works of taste were 
carried to Eome, which served as models for imitation, and laid the 
foundation of that excellence in art to which the Italians afterwards 
attained. The unfortunate city was razed to the ground, and its 
inhabitants sold into slavery. 

About A. D. 86, the Athenians, hoping to fling off the foreign 
government, made an alliance with Mithridates, king of Pontus. 
Sylla, in revenge for their defection, destroyed the fortifications of 
their city, and defaced many of the public buildings. 

The court of Areopagus still continued to exist, and Athens was 
still the school of philosophy, to which the learned and inquiring 
resorted from all the civilized world. Several of the emperors, and 
many of the most celebrated Romans, distinguished it by their resi- 
dence and munificence. With other contiguous portions of the 
Roman empire, Greece fell before the power of Alaric, king of the 
Visigoths, and shared the usual devastation which marked the 
course of these barbarian hordes. 



Vj tiith ti/d) Ji Jj lU JjO J> t/oj < 



MODERN GREECE. 



After the division of the immense dominions of the Romans 
(A. D. 364) into the Eastern and Western Empires, the influence of 
Grecian manners and colonization were so extended as to cause the 
former to be called after their country — the Greek Empire. Under 
this power, Greece Proper continued to exist until about the year 



X24: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

A. D. 1200, when the greater part of it was conquered, and formed 
into small principalities by various Italian adventurers, with whom 
it remained until its invasion and complete conquest by the Turks 
under Mahomet II. 

Though allowed to retain their national religion, (that of the 
Greek or Patriarchal church,) the Greeks were cruelly oppressed 
and enslaved by their new masters for nearly four hundred years; 
and under these unfavourable circumstances the national character 
became lowered and degraded. 

A spark of the ancient spirit yet survived ; in 1820, the inhabit- 
ants throughout the Morea raised the standard of revolt, and the 
revolution soon became general. The most atrocious cruelties were 
inflicted on the insurgents and all the Grecian race whenever cap- 
tured; the venerable Patriarch was hanged at Constantinople, and 
in every direction thousands of defenceless persons were massacred 
without mxcrcy. These acts of violence were retaliated by the Greeks 
whenever successful. 

The Turks soon sustained a severe reverse. Besieged in Tripolitza, 
near the centre of the Morea, they were compelled, after an obstinate 
resistance, to surrender, and fifteen thousand of them perished. They 
met with signal defeats in other parts, and more than one Turkish 
army left the bones of thousands scattered through the narrow passes 
of the Peloponnesus. 

Many acts were performed worthy of the best days of Ancient 
Greece. The brave Marco Botzaris, with an army of two thousand 
men, marched against Mustapha Pasha, the Turkish commander of 
fourteen thousand. Emulating the example of Leonidas, with his 
little force he attacked the enemy's camp by night. "If you lose 
sight of me," said he, "seek me in the pasha's tent." After having 
thrown the whole army into confusion by the suddenness and fury 
of his attack, he was mortally wounded, carried off the field, and 
expired. 

Among other acts of atrocity committed by the Turks, the beau- 
tiful and peaceful island of Scio was ravaged with fire and sword, 
twenty thousand of the inhabitants were massacred, as many sold 
for slaves, and the remainder compelled to fly for their lives. The 
island was completely depopulated, and nothing was left but smoking 
ruins and ravaged plantations. The fleet of the Turkish admiral, 
who had performed this atrocious deed, was soon afler destroyed by 
the brave Canaris. 



GREECE. 125 

In this long and terrible struggle, the Greeks were not without 
sympathy and assistance. Many lovers of freedom flocked to their 
standard from other countries, and among them the illnstrions Byron, 
who perished at Missilonghi. Assistance was rendered them in 
money, provisions, and clothing, by the people of England and the 
United States ; and at last the British government decided to interfere 
in their behalf with an armed force. 

The Turkish fleet, reinforced by that of Ibrahim Pasha, their 
Egyptian ally, lay at anchor in the harbour of Navarino. A squad- 
ron of English, French, and Eussian vessels appeared before it, 
though without provoking an encounter. By the rashness of a 
Turkish commander, the two squadrons soon became involved in a 
general engagement; which resulted in the complete destruction of 
the Ottoman fleet, with an immense loss of life. 

This event decided the fate of Greece. Her independence was 
guarantied by the larger powers of Europe, and, by their influence. 
Prince Otho, of Bavaria, ascended the throne. The condition of the 
country, though improved, has remained somewhat unsettled. A 
jealousy of the Bavarian of&cers, who had too great a share in the 
royal favour, and other defects incident to a new dynasty, have fre- 
quently caused popular demonstrations against the government, in 
which much of the ancient democratic spirit has been manifested. 

The latest movement of this nature, however, was conducted with 
such admirable firmness and moderation, that the king, with his 
absolutist advisers, was compelled to succumb to the popular will, 
and yield his assent to a constitution, far more liberal than any 
which the nation had yet enjoyed. The rights and representation 
of the people were guarantied by this instrument in the fullest man- 
ner, and the royal prerogative was limited and defined. 

The improvement, indeed, both in public order and capacity for 
self-government, seems to be decided ; and we may hope yet to see 
this classic and celebrated land once more take her place among 
nations, with greater happiness and more real freedom than ever 
existed, even in her most renowned and victorious days. 



ROME. 



THE EARLY AND PARTIALLY FABULOUS HISTORY OF ROME 
UNDER THE KINGS 

The origin of few nations is more obscure than that of the Eomans. 
Wrapped in the mists of fable and mythology, the account of their 
primitive national existence affords few reliable or satisfactory points 
on which the historian may rest. The stories so popularly received, 
both among the later Eomans and many writers since, are founded 
upon ancient traditions, and on certain poems of doubtful authenti- 
city, and long since lost to mankind. 

In the midst of these romances, a few plain and well-substantiated 
truths have been gleaned, and illustrated from other sources. It 
appears true, that from a period far beyond the time when the 
Eoman people make their first appearance in history, their city, per- 
haps under another name, occupied its present site on the Palatine 
Hill ; that it was peopled by a combined race of native Oscans and 
foreign Pelasgians ; that the nation Avas afterwards further increased 
by a union with the Sabines, a neighbouring people ; and that, lastly, 
there occurred a further union with (and perhaps a subjugation by) 
the Etruscans, a powerful and refined nation, which infused into the 
Eoman national character its own greatness and peculiarities. 

It also appears that from the earliest period Eome was governed 
by kings, elected for life by the people, with a senate selected from 
an hereditary nobility ; that the people, desirous of more influence, 
were often at issue with both, and that, finally, the monarchy was 
overthrown, and a republic or commonwealth established in its stead. 

The account of these early transactions, as given by Eoman histo- 
rians, is, in a few facts, from external evidence, true; in others, 



ROME. 



127 



indisputably false. Much remains wliich may liave some foundation 
in fact, but of tlie truthfulness of which we have no means of judg- 
ing. The story of their origin and early history, as generally received 
among them, is briefly as follows : 

^Eneas, a prince of Troy, after the destruction of that city by the 
Greeks, sailing in quest of a new home, and having experienced 
many strange adventures, ascended the Tiber, and landed in Italy, 
After a fierce war with Turnus, king of the Rutuli, he espoused 
Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, king of the Latin race, built a city, and 
founded a new nation. From this tradition originated that beauti- 
ful poem, the ^neid, in which the wars and wanderings of the hero 
are described with great genius and interest. 

After fifteen kings had reigned, Amulius, a usurper, caused two 
infants, lineal descendants fi:"om the royal family, to be exposed on 
the banks of the Tiber. The fabulous narration states that these 
children, Romulus and Eemus, were suckled by a wolf; and a bronze 
statue, representing this event, was long held in reverence at Rome, 
and even exists at the present time. Preserved by a herdsman, and 
attaining a manly age, they destroyed the usurper, and restored 
their grandfather, ISTumitor, the rightful claimant to the throne. 

They then resolved to found a city, and while laying the founda- 
tions, Remus was slain by his brother, who was offended because he 
had contemptuously leaped over the wall. Romulus, thus left in sole 
authority, completed the city upon the Palatine Hill, named it Roma, 
(B. C. 752,) and peopled it by inviting thither all slaves, criminals, and 
other lawless persons from the surrounding country. He was chosen 
king, and a council of a hundred senators was appointed. "Women 
alone were wanting to the new state, and as the neighbouring people 
declined intermarriage, Romulus resorted to stratagem to accomplish 
his wishes. Having instituted a feast to Neptune, with attractive 
games, he invited the surrounding people, who came readily, and 
among them the Sabines, a warlike nation in the vicinity. While 
all were intent upon the spectacle, the Roman youth suddenly rushed 
armed into the assembly, and carried off the youngest and most 
beautifal women. War of course ensued, and, after mutual successes 
and reverses, was at last ended by the intervention of the captured 
females, who, now reconciled to their ravishers, rushed into the 
midst of battle, and besought their husbands and parents to relin- 
quish arms. 

Peace was restored, Tatius, a Sabine king, being admitted to share 



128 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. 

the tlirone with Romulus, and a hundred Sabines being introduced 
into the senate. The city retained its name, but the citizens were 
called Quirites, after Cures, a Sabine town — a name which they 
always retained. 

Romulus, affecting supreme power, was, it is said, after a reign of 
thirty-seven years, assassinated by the senators, and his remains care- 
fully concealed; while the people were persuaded into a belief that 
he had been translated to heaven as a god. A temple was dedicated 
to him under the name of Quirinus. 

He was succeeded by Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, and a man of 
great learning, piety, and justice. So wise and virtuous was his 
reign, that the people supposed him to be intimate with the nymph 
Egeria, and to receive instruction from her. He built temples, insti- 
tuted sacred ceremonies, divided among the poorer people the lands 
obtained by war, and effaced the distinction between the Roman and 
Sabine population. He died, after a peaceful reign of forty-three 
years. 

After an interregnum (vacancy of the throne), Tullus Hostiiius 
was next elected, (U. C* 82,) a prince of warlike disposition, who 
soon commenced hostilities against the Albans. As battle was about 
to be joined, it was proposed and agreed to stake the event upon a 
combat between three champions on each side. With the Romans 
were three brothers called the Horatii, and with the Albans three 
others called the Curatii, all of great strength and courage. The 
account of the contest and its sequel is romantic and interesting. 
The Romans triumphed, and the Alban army and people submitted. 

Ancus Marcius, the grandson of Numa, was the next king, (U. C. 
115,) being elected by the people, whose choice was confirmed by the 
senate. Like his ancestor, he was of a pacific and virtuous charac- 
ter, though possessing talents for warfare. Attacked by the Latins, 
he defeated them, destroyed their cities, and removed the inhabitants 
to Rome. He likewise obtained success over other enemies. He 
beautified and fortified the city, and, among other public works, built 
the sea-port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. 

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, a foreigner from Corinth, succeeded to 
the throne. He gained victories over several of the adjoining 
nations, and improved the city with public edifices. He first assumed 

* U. C, "Urbe Condita," — "from the foundation of the city," which took place, 
according to this account, B. C. 752. 



ROME. 



129 



tke emblems of royalty in tlie shape of crown, throne, and sceptre. 
After a reign of thirty-eight years, he was murdered by the sons of 
Ancus Marcius. 

Servius Tullius, his son-in-law, was raised to the throne by the 
voice of the senate only. He repaid this service by increasing their 
power as much as possible, at the expense of the people's. After a 
prosperous reign of forty-four years, he was murdered by his son-in- 
law Lucius Tarquinius, who ascended the throne, (U. C. 220,) being 
the seventh and last king of the Roman people. 

Secure in power, the usurper governed with great tyranny and 
cruelty. He put to death all who had been attached to the late 
king, and, to overawe the people, increased the guard around his 
person. By force and treachery, he gained many advantages over 
the surrounding nations ; and to employ his people, completed the 
building of the capitol. In his reign the famous Sybilline Books 
were also purchased, and deposited in the new edifice. 

The lawless passions of his son Sextus, who had committed an 
outrage on Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, cost him his throne. 
Revenge was sought by the injured family, and especially by 
Junius Brutus, whose father and brother had been murdered by the 
king. Exposing the body of Lucretia (who had stabbed herself) in 
the public forum, he so excited the vengeance of the citizens, that a 
decree was passed, by which the whole family of Tarquin was 
dethroned and banished. The exiled prince took refuge in Etruria, 
after a reign of twenty-five years (U. C 245). 

It would appear that the Roman nation, under the latter kings, 
was more powerful, and more commercial in its nature, than has been 
generally supposed; for a treaty with Carthage was made about this 
time, by which the respective limits of navigation and the rules of 
international commerce were prescribed. The maritime skill of the 
Romans, however, became almost entirely disused and forgotten 
during the decline of their power which succeeded. 
9 



130 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 



\j (L(L luuj Jf w iLi ujO Ui ui e 



THE CONSULS, DICTATORS, TRIBUNES, AND DECEMVIRS. 

WARS WITH THE VOLSCIANS AND WITH VEIL 

DECLINE OF THE ROMAN POWER. 



A MORE republican form of government was now instituted, tlie 
influence of the senate, however, being still predominant. Two 
magistrates, called consuls, (or probably at first praetors,) were annu- 
ally chosen from that body by the people, with authority equal to 
that possessed by the kings. Brutus and Collatinus were first 
elected to the office. 

A great danger soon menaced the new commonwealth. A 
conspiracy in favour of Tarquin was formed by some of the young 
men at Eome. Among them were the sons of Brutus and the 
nephews of Collatinus. The plot was discovered, and the conspira- 
tors condemned to death — Brutus alone beholding, with unfaltering 
countenance, the execution of his children. 

Tarquin, assisted by the Veiians, with a considerable force, 
marched upon Eome ; Brutus and Valerius went forth to oppose 
him. The former, meeting Aruns, the son of Tarquin, in single fight, 
both were slain ; a desperate contest ensued between the two armies, 
and Valerius, having obtained the advantage, returned to Eome. 

The defeated adventurer next sought assistance from Porsenna, a 
valiant and powerful king of the Etrurians. Marching to Eome with 
a numerous army, and laying siege to it, they gained great advan- 
tages, and would have taken the city, but for the valour of Horatius 
Codes, who, with two others, defended the entrance to a bridge over 
the Tiber, until it had been broken down by the citizens ; then 
plunging with his arms into the torrent, he swam safely to the oppo- 
site shore. The city was now blockaded, and the besieged began to 
suffer extremities from hunger. 

In this strait, Mutius Scsevola, a young man of great bravery, 
entered the camp of the invader in disguise, determined to kill the 
Etrurian king, and deliver his country. Having by mistake stabbed 
the royal secretary, he was taken and brought before Porsenna, 
where, being interrogated, he at once avowed his intention ; and 



EOME. 231 

thrusting liis right hand into a fire which glowed upon the altar, 
manifested his contempt of torture. He further assured the king 
that three hundred Roman youths had taken a vow to accomplish 
the same deed which he had attempted. It is said that Porsenna, 
struck with his heroism, dismissed him, and shortly afterwards 
granted peace to the besieged, on the deliverance of hostages. 

(It is thought by some tliat this invasion of Eome resulted in the 
entire subjugation of the people, and that it did not reappear as an 
independent power until some time afterwards, and then with the 
loss of great portions of its territories. It should be remarked that 
the chronology up to this time, and somewhat later, is entirely 
defective — the events alluded to having probably occurred at a much 
earlier period than that which is thus ascribed to them.) 

A further disagreement between the people and the nobility 
resulted in the appointment of a dictator, who was invested with 
absolute power over both (U. C. 255). Largius, who was first 
appointed, exercised his authority in a lenient manner for a short 
time, and then resigned it. The plebeians, or common people, (of 
whom the army was composed,) weary of the oppressive conduct 
of the nobility, who, as their creditors, held them in almost complete 
servitude, took a new and singular resolution. Headed by a plebeian, 
named Sicinius Bellutus, they quitted the city en masse, and encamped 
upon the Mons Sacer, (the Sacred Mountain, so called from this event,) 
about three miles from Eome. After some ineffectual negotiation, 
ten commissioners were appointed by the senate to confer with them, 
and settle the matters in dispute. Among -these was Menenius 
Agrippa, a man of great shrewdness and humour, who, to persuade 
and amuse the discontented plebeians, related to them the well-known 
fable of "the belly and the members," showing the mutual depend- 
ance of the people and their rulers. 

It was finally conceded that a new office should be instituted, 
charged expressly with the protection of the popular rights. Five 
tribunes (afterwards increased to ten) were to be annually elected by 
the people, and in them was to be vested the power of confirming 
or annulling every decree of the senate. Besides this formidable 
concession, an edict was made for the abolition of debts; and the 
people, having carried their demands triumphantly, returned in 
peace to the city (U. C. 260). 

Tillage having been neglected during this difficulty, famine ensued ; 
which, however, Avas relieved by the importation of grain from Sicily. 



132 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOKY. 



Coriolanus, a distinguished noble and general, opposing the distri- 
bution of this to the people, was cited by the tribunes to undergo 
a popular trial; and other charges being alleged against him, was 
condemned to banishment. In the midst of great lamentation, 
especially of the senate, he quitted the city, and took refuge with 
Tullus Attius, a powerful chief of the Yolscians, and a determined 
enemy of Eome. 

His resentment soon made itself formidable. On a slight pretext, 
the new confederates declared war against Eome, and marched 
toward the city, devastating all lands except such as belonged to the 
nobility. The Eomans, filled with consternation, and finding the 
arms of their ablest general turned against them, made but a feeble 
resistance, and took refuge in their city. After taking many of their 
towns, he sat down, with a numerous army, before the walls of Eome. 
The citizens, dreading the worst, sent out an embassy to deprecate 
his vengeance, and obtain moderate terms of peace. It was dismissed 
with contempt, and another, composed of priests, pontiffs, and augurs, 
shared the same fate. At last, yielding to the entreaties of his wife 
and mother, who came forth beseeching him to spare the city, he 
consented to withdraw his arniy, exclaiming, " Oh, my mother, thou 
hast saved Eome, but lost thy son!" Not long afterwards, he was 
slain in a tumult by the discontented Volscians. 

Soon after these events, Spurius Cossus, aiming at supreme power, 
was thrown headlong from the Tarpeian Eock; the customary 
punishment of traitors. 

Great dissensions now arose between the senate and people on 
account of an agrarian law, or edict for the division of public lands, 
which was proposed by the tribunes. A dictatorship was again 
resorted to, and the most fitting occupant of this high office was found 
in Cincinnatus, a man of great virtue and poverty, who quitted his little 
farm to assume the entire control of aftairs at Eome. By his influ- 
ence with the people, he restored harmony, postponed the passage of 
the obnoxious law, and induced thern again to enlist in the army — 
a refusal to do which was their common method of testifying 
resentment and embarrassing the government. 

He retired, but was soon again summoned from his seclusion by 
the necessities of the state. The Equi and Yolsci, resuming the 
war, had made fresh inroads, and at last besieged the consul, Minu- 
tius, with his army, in a narrow defile, whence he could not escape. 
Cincinnatus, hastily levying forces, marched to his aid, and the Equi, 




THE MOTHER OE COEIOLANUa 



ENTREATING HER SON THAT ROME MAT MR STARED 



'VoLUMNiA. — — — — — He turns awiiy! 
Down, ladies; let us shame him -^-ith our knees; 
To his surname, Coriolanus, 'longs more pride 
Than pity to our pirayers. Do^wn ; an end: 
This is the last; so Ave -will home to Evome, 
And die among our neighhoiirs. 

Coriolanus. — — — Oh, mother! mother!' 
What have you done? Behold, the heavens do opie, 
The gods look down, and this unnatural scene 
They laugh at. Oh, my mother, mother! Oh, 
You have won a happy victory for Rome , 
Eut for your son — helieve it, oh, helieve it! — 
Most dangerously with him you have prevailed. 
If not most mortal to him." 

Shakspeare 



EOME. 



1 V 

J-Ot 



attacked on both sides, were compelled to surrender. The officers 
were sent to Eome, and the soldiers were obliged to pass under the 
3'^oke, in token of humiliation. Having further taken their city, and 
fortified it for the Romans, he resigned his command, and returned 
to the quiet seclusion of his farm. 

The clamours for the agrarian law were soon renewed; and with 
reason: for the people, who, by their bravery and endurance, had 
gained the enemy's lands, Avere debarred from sharing them. Being 
strongly urged by Siccius Dentatus, a veteran soldier, it would 
probably have passed, but for the violence of the young patricians, 
who, attacking the crowd, destroyed the balloting urns, and defeated 
the resolution (U. C. 302). 

Both senate and people were now desirous of adjusting their 
disputes by the adoption of a written code of laws, which should be 
obligatory on all parties. Three commissioners were despatched to 
Athens and other Grecian cities, to collect and bring home the most 
useful laws and institutions which they could discover. During their 
absence, a terrible plague ravaged the city. At the end of a year 
they returned, having collected a number of ordinances, which were 
embodied in ten tables, which, with the subsequent addition of two 
more, formed the celebrated code of the "twelve tables," some frag- 
ments of which remain to the present day. 

It was resolved that ten of the senate should be annually elected, 
with power equal to that of the consuls, to carry the laws into effect; 
and these decemvirs, by private agreement, each exercised authority 
in turn for one day. Artfully procuring their power to be extended 
beyond the stated term, they soon commenced acts of tj^ranny and 
proscription, aggravated by the popular resistance. No one ven- 
tured to attack them openly, being surrounded at all times by a host 
of lictors and dependants. 

The Volsci and Equi, constant enemies of Rome, profiting by the 
general discontent, renewed their attacks, and even advanced within 
ten miles of the city. Appius, one of the decemvirs, with a portion 
of the army, was left at Rome, to overawe the people, and his col- 
leagues, with the remainder, marched out to meet the enemy. They 
were shamefully put to flight ; the people, after their usual fashion, 
testifying their discontent by refusing to engage. Dentatus, being 
sent to the army, as legate, was assassinated by order of the treach- 
erous decemvirs, after a brave resistance, in which he killed many 
of his assailants. 



134 THE PEorLE's book of histoey. 

A deed yet more detestable was now perpetrated at Eome. 
Appius, a man of unbridled passions, and utterly lawless, one day, 
sitting on liis tribunal, beheld a beautiful young girl, named Vir- 
ginia, about fifteen years of age, passing on lier way to school. He 
at once determined, at all hazards, to possess her, and made inquir- 
ies concerning her parentage, and all other circumstances. She 
was the daughter of Virginius, a centurion, then with the army, and 
was contracted to Icilius, a tribune of the people. After several 
fruitless attempts, he suborned a villanous dependant to claim her 
as his slave, and to swear that she had been born in his house, and 
adopted by the wife of Virginius, who was childless. Virginius 
hastened to Rome, and exposed the falsehood of the claim by indis- 
putable proof; yet the wicked decemvir gave judgment that his 
daughter should be delivered up to the new claimant. The centu- 
rion, under pretext of taking farewell of his child, was permitted 
to speak with her privately, and seizing a knife from the shambles 
near the forum, embraced her, and stabbed her to the heart. Then, 
devoting Appius to the infernal gods, he hastened to the army, and 
excited a general insurrection. The people left their commanders, 
and again sullenly too]^ their station on Mount Aventine, whither 
they had retired forty years before. 

The tumult in the city increased, the senate succimibed, and eight 
of the decemvirs went into exile. Appius and his remaining col- 
league, being thrown into prison, ended their lives by suicide. 

Meanwhile, the hostile nations in the vicinity became bolder and 
more successful, sometimes carrying their incursions to the very 
walls of Rome. Dissension within still prevailed. The senate, with 
indignation, submitted to a law proposed by the tribunes, allowing 
intermarriage between the patricians and plebeians ; another, permit- 
ting consuls to be chosen from the latter, they absolutely refused to 
pass. The people then resorted to their old expedient of refusing- 
enlistment ; and a compromise was finally entered into, by which it 
was agreed that in place of the consuls, six military tribunes 
should be appointed, of whom half might be chosen from the 
people (U. C. 310). 

The new aiithorities, before long, were discontinued, and the 
consuls resumed their function. A new office, that of censor, was 
now instituted, the business of which was to estimate the property 
and numbers of the citizens, to oversee morals, and to degrade 
nobles, knights, and plebeians, for misconduct, into a lower rank. The 




THE DEATH OF VIRGINIA. 

— — — — — — 'Spurned, "betrayed, berefc, 

Thy father hath in his despair one fearful refuge lei't 

He little deems that in this hand I clutch what still can save 

Thy gentle youth from taunts and blows, the portion of the slave , 

Tea, and from nam.eless evil, that passeth taunt and blow — 

Foul outrage which thou know'st not, which thou shalt never know 

Then clasp me round the neck once more, and give me one more kiss 

And now, mine own dear little girl, there is no way but this.' 

With that he lifted high the steel, and smote her in the side. 

And in her blood she sank to earth, and with one sob she died 



Then, for a little moment, all people held their breath, 
And through the crowded forum was stillness as of death, 
And in another moment broke forth from one and all 
A cry as if the Volscians were coming o'er the wall." 

La.ys of Ancient P^ome 



KOME. 



135 



incumbent was cliosen every fifth year, and was usually a patrician. 
Concord was thus, in some measure, restored; and was farther 
enhanced by a victory over the Volscians under Geganius the consul. 

A famine arising, Spurius Melius, a wealthy Equestrian, took 
advantage of it to increase his popularity by importing and distrib- 
uting corn to the people in great quantities. Thus strengthened, he 
conspired to seize the government. Suspicion was aroused, and, to 
meet the crisis, Cincinnatus, now eighty years old, was again chosen 
dictator. Melius refused to appear before him ; and resisting Ahala, 
his deputy, was killed by the latter on the spot. 

The people, who espoused the cause of Melius, again demanded 
military tribunes. The senate complied, but they were soon again 
discontinued and consuls reappointed. 

The inhabitants of Yeii had long been at enmity with Eome ; and 
it was determined to destroy their city. The siege is said, probably 
with exaggeration, to have lasted ten years, and to have consumed 
by warfare or exposure a great part of the population of Eome, 
It was at last taken by a mine, under Furius Camillus, who had 
been appointed dictator ;~ and the Eomans also regained much of 
the territory which they had lost in fornaer wars. The siege of Falerii 
was noted for the treachery of a school-master, who, having charge 
of the children of the chief men of the city, delivered them up as 
hostages ; and for the magnanimity of Camillus, who returned them 
to their parents. 

The dictator, soon after falling before the caprice of the multitude, 
was cited for trial, and refusing to submit to it, took refuge in Ardea, 
a city not far from Eome. He was adjudged, in his absence, to pay 
a heavy fine. 



kj Jjjj ciii) i X lLI i)X Ji X X a 

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS. 

A NEW and terrible danger now threatened the destruction of 
Eome. A vast number of Gauls, issuing from their forests beyond 
the Alps, commenced to overrun Italy, and wherever they made 
their appearance, dispossessed the original inhabitants. Of giant 



136 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

stature and barbarian manners, they struck witb terror tlie more 
effeminate Italians. The inhabitants of Clusium, a city of Etruria, 
being besieged by them, sought the assistance of Eome. An 
embassy of three senators was accordingly sent to interfere in their 
behalf These, after vainly attempting negotiation, entered the city, 
and headed a sally of the besieged. Enraged at this interference, 
the Gauls immediately broke up their encampment, and marched 
directly upon Rome. Leaving the intervening countries unharmed, 
they pursued a steady course toward the city. A Roman army, 
which encountered them near the river Allia, was totally defeated, 
with a loss of nearly forty thousand men. The city now lay at 
their mercy, and most of the inhabitants took refuge in the neigh- 
bouring towns. 

After two days of feasting and exultation on the scene of their 
victory, the barbarian army marched to Rome, which they found 
almost abandoned, except by a force in the capitol. It is related, 
probably with invention or exaggeration, that these rude natives of 
the forest, entering the forum, and beholding the most aged senators 
and priests sitting in their robes of office, each with an ivory sceptre, 
supposed them to be the tutelary deities of the place, and would 
have offered them worship. One of them, through curiosity, 
attempting to stroke the beard of Papyrius, a noble Roman, was 
struck to the earth by his sceptre; upon which an indiscriminate 
slaughter of the senate and all the remaining inhabitants took place. 
The city was then set on fire, and all the houses burned to the 
ground; the capitol, strongly fortified and bravely defended, still 
held out. 

An attack by night was made, and would have been successful, 
but for the alarm given by the cries of certain geese, sacred to Juno, 
which were kept in her temple. The assault being thus discovered 
in time, the Gauls were repulsed, and many of them thrown from 
the top of the precipice. Despairing of taking the fortress, Brennus, 
their leader, agreed to withdraw his army on payment of a thousand 
pounds of gold. While it was being weighed out, amid the insults 
of the conqueror, Camillus suddenly appeared at the head of a large 
army, which he had raised for the assistance of his countrymen. 
Commanding the gold to be restored to its coffers, he sternly 
informed the Gauls that it was the custom with Romans to ransom 
their country with iron alone; a battle instantly ensued, in which 
the Gauls were utterly defeated, and compelled to fly the country. 



EOME. 1^>j 

This account of tlie return of Camillus, is by some considered 
untrue, though it is certain that the invaders were compelled to 
abandon their conquest. 

The city (except the capitol) was now a heap of ruins, and the 
people, in despair, wished to abandon it entirely, and make their 
homes at Veii. By the remonstrances of Camillus, this design was 
relinquished, fresh buildings were commenced, and Eome began to 
rise from her ashes. Domestic troubles soon again ensued. Manlius, 
a patrician, whose bravery in defending the capitol had induced the 
Eomans to provide him with a dwelling and public support, began to 
aspire to the sovereignty. To oppose his design, Cornelius Cossus 
was appointed dictator by the senate, but found his authority 
unequal in power to the popularity of Manlius, whose insolence and 
seditious conduct became worse and worse. As a last resort, 
Camillus was appointed military tribune, and summoned Manlius 
to take his trial before the people. They refused to condemn him 
while in sight of the capitol, the scene of his former patriotism ; but 
the trial being adjourned to another place, he was found guilty, and 
sentenced to be thrown from the Tarpeian Eock. 

About this time occurs the fabulous tale of a gulf which opened 
in the midst of Eome, widened daily, and refused to close, until 
Curtius, a brave soldier, devoting himself to the good of his country, 
leaped in, and was swallowed up. Such relations as this, cause us to 
look with distrust upon other matters recorded by the early historians, 
especially their narratives of personal adventures. From this time, 
however, the history of Eome becomes far more reliable, and its 
authenticity is soon found to be unquestionable. 



CHAPTEH 17. 

THE WARS WITH THE SAMNITES, THE LATINS AND PYREHTJS. 

A WAE soon occurred between the Eomans and the Samnites, a I 
powerful nation in the south of Italy. The consul Cornelius led an | 
army against Samnium, and obtained signal success ; his colleague, ! 



138 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Yalerius Corvus, who had gone to the relief of Capua, also gained 
a great victory over the enemy on his way. A large force was left 
at Capua, which soon became mutinous, and marched back to within 
eight miles of Eome, Corvus was appointed dictator, and led out 
an army against them ; a terrible civil contest, however, was averted 
by his moderation and influence with the soldiery. 

The Eomans were next engaged in war with the Latins ; and the 
similarity of the two nations in language, arms, and appearance, was 
so great, that the strictest discipline was required to prevent con- 
fusion. Orders were issued by Manlius, the consul, that no one 
should leave the ranks, on pain" of death, at any provocation what- 
ever. As the battle commenced, Metius, the Latin general, riding 
before the Eoman lines, challenged any knight in their armj^ to a 
single combat. Titus Manlius, son of the consul, unable to resist 
the temptation, encountered him, and after a desperate conflict, slew 
and despoiled him of his armour. To the horror of the whole 
army, the rule was enforced, and the youth publicly beheaded by 
the lictors, at the command of his own father. 

The battle lasted long, and the issue was doubtful, when Decius, 
a tribune of the people, who commanded the left wing, resolved to 
offer his life to his country, by fulfilling an augury, which foretold 
success to the party whose general should voluntarily seek destruc- 
tion. Having solemnly devoted himself, as a sacrifice, to the infernal 
and celestial gods, he rushed on horseback into the midst of the 
enemy, and, covered with wounds, expired. The Eomans, emulating 
his example, and encouraged by the prophecy, gained so complete 
a victory that the enemy was almost exterminated. The Latins 
were compelled to sue for peace; their chief city, Ptedaeum, was 
taken, not long after, and they were reduced to entire subjection 
(U. C. 431.) 

The contest with the Samnites still continued. The Eomans, 
having refused to make peace, suffered a signal reverse. Their 
army, being entrapped into a narrow defile by Pontius, the Samnite 
general, was compelled to capitulate, and then, disarmed and half- 
stripped, to pass under the yoke. This incident caused the deepest 
mortification at Eome. The success of the Samnites, however, was 
but temporary, and their enemies, under Papyrius Cursor and Fabius 
Maximus, gained repeated triumphs, and finally reduced them to an 
enfeebled condition. 

In this extremity, the defeated nation sought assistance from 



KOME. 



139 



Pjrrhus, the powerful and warlike king of Epirus. This monarch, 
of great talents and ambition, readily undertook a scheme which 
promised farther conquests, and first sent them a force of three 
thousand men, under the command of Cineas, a distinguished soldier 
and orator. He soon afterwards followed in person, with a force of 
twenty-three thousand men and twenty elephants. A great part of his 
armament was, however, dispersed and lost in a tempest. Arriving 
with the remainder at Tarentum, he took the entire command, and 
instituted strict discipline among the luxurious inhabitants of that city. 

The Eomans omitted no preparations for defence ; and the consul 
Ltevinus, with a numerous army, was despatched to oppose him. 
Rejecting an offer of mediation from Pyrrhus, he pitched his camp on 
one bank of the river Lyris, while his antagonist occupied the 
other ; somewhat disappointed by the able disposition of the Roman 
forces. The battle was commenced by Lajvin^is, who crossed the 
river in spite of opposition, and the action soon became general. 
This battle, the first in which the Greeks and Romans had encoun- 
tered each other, was long and obstinately disputed; but the scale 
was finally turned in favour of Pyrrhus by his elephants, which 
struck terror into the minds of the inexperienced Romans. A 
charge of the famous Thessalian cavalry completed their defeat, and 
they retreated, leaving fifteen thousand men upon the field. The 
victory had cost the Epirotes almost as dearly. The king, struck 
with admiration at the bravery of his opponents, and surveying 
the manly forms stretched upon the battle-ground, is said to have 
exclaimed, "With what ease I could conquer the world, if I had 
the Romans for soldiers, or if they had me for their king!" 

Cineas was now despatched to Rome with overtures of peace, 
which were sternly rejected, except upon condition that the foreign 
auxiliaries should leave the shores of Italy. Returning, he informed 
his master that the city seemed peopled by kings, and that the senate 
was like an assembly of demi-gods seated in a temple. 

Undismayed at their defeat, the Romans renewed the war ; and, 
with a force of about forty thousand, encountered the enemy, equal 
in numbers, near Asculum. After a fiercely-disputed contest, the 
Romans, under their consuls, Decius and Sulpicius, were again 
defeated, with a loss of six thousand men. The loss of Pyrrhus was 
almost as severe, and he exclaimed to those who congratulated him, 
"One such victory more, and I shall be undone!" 

The Romans, though defeated, were still magnanimous; and an 



140 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 



offer by the physician of Pjrrhus to take off his master by poison, 
was at once disclosed to him. As an acknowledgment of their 
courtesy, he dismissed his prisoners without ransom, and again 
offered to negotiate a peace. This was refused, except upon the 
same condition as before, and, after an interval of two years, both 
parties renewed the war, Pyrrhus, strengthened by new levies, 
despatched one part of his army against Lentulus, the Eoman consul, 
and marched in person with the remainder against Curius Dentatus, 
Failing in his attempt to surprise the latter by night, battle was 
joined, and finding his opponents gaining the advantage, he brought 
up his elephants to the attack. These, however, had now lost their 
original terror, and the Eomans, with flaming balls of tow and rosin, 
drove them back into the ranks of the enemy, and soon put his 
entire army into confusion. In spite of the greatest exertions of 
Pyrrhus, he was utterly defeated, with a loss of twenty-three 
thousand troops. His camp was also taken, and the Romans 
learned, from its construction, most important lessons in the art of 
entrenchment. 

The war had now lasted six years, and Pyrrhus, finding little to 
be gained among these stubborn, impracticable people, took his 
departure, leaving only a garrison in Tarentum, This also was 
reduced, not long afterwards, by a combined force from Rome and 
Carthage, acting under the ancient treaty of the kings, which had 
lately been revived with additional provisions for mutual assistance 
in time of war. The walls were demolished, but the inhabitants 
were treated with mildness and lenity. 



CHAPTER ?, 



THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 



The amicable relations of Rome and Carthage were of short 
continuance. The latter, a flourishing colony founded by the 
Phoenicians on the coast of Africa, (about 889, B, C) had now 
become one of the most powerful nations on the earth. She was 



EOME, 



141 



in possession of a part of Sicily, and had long been ambitious of 
adding the whole island to her territories. Pyrrhus himself had 
predicted the contest which ensued. Hiero, the king of Syracuse, 
attempting to reduce a revolted garrison at Messina, its defenders 
applied for assistance to both the rival nations. Each sent a force, 
with intent to gain possession of the place, and the Carthagenians, 
who had arrived first, were dispossessed by the Eomans. A war 
thus broke out, the cause of which, a mutual jealousy, had been 
evident for some time, and had even showed itself in the siege of 
Tarentum (U. C. 490). 

Carthage, essentially a maritime nation, possessed great advantages 
in her fleets and the skill of her seamen ; the Eomans were at this 
period almost wholly unacquainted with the construction or naviga- 
tion of vessels. With indomitable perseverance, however, they set 
to work; and a Carthagenian galley, wrecked on the shore at 
Messina, is said to have served them for a model in the art of ship- 
building. 

A fleet being finally equipped, ventured to sea under the consul 
Decilius, and with characteristic audacity and good fortune, engaged 
the Carthagenians, and defeated them, with a loss of fifty ships. 
The senate now resolved to carry the war into Africa, and des- 
patched to the enemy's shores a fleet of three hundred sail, carrying 
an hundred and forty thousand men, under command of Manlius 
and of Eegulus, the most eminent Eoman general then living. 
They were engaged by the Carthagenians with an equal force, and, 
though worsted in manoeuvring and fighting at a distance, soon dis- 
covered their superiority in close combat. The fleet of the enemy 
was dispersed, and fifty -four vessels were taken. Following up their 
advantage, the Eomans made a descent upon the coast of Africa, 
and took the city of Clypea, with twenty thousand prisoners of war. 

The charge of the war in Sicily was now committed to Manlius, 
and Eegulus continued to prosecute the campaign in Africa. This 
he did with such energy and success, that, after sustaining a fresh 
defeat, the Carthagenians were reduced almost to despair, and more 
than eighty of their towns submitted to the Eomans. 

As a last resort, they sent to Lacedsemon, and engaged the services 
of Xantippus, a commander of experience and distinction. By his 
skill and discipline, and by the confidence which he revived, their 
affairs soon began to wear a more cheerful aspect. His forces being 
sufficiently trained, he took the field, supplied with cavalry, 



142 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

elephants, and otlier necessary forces, and in a great battle com- 
pletely defeated the Eomans, destroyed the greater part of their 
army, and captured Regulus himself. 

Fresh disasters awaited them; their whole fleet was lost in a 
storm ; another, which they built, was driven upon quicksands, and 
shared a similar fate ; and Agrigentum, an important town in Sicily, 
was taken from them by Karthalo, the Carthagenian general. 

Satisfied with these successes, Carthage would willingly have 
made peace; and for this purpose sent ambassadors to Rome, carry- 
ing with them Regulus, who had now been confined in a dungeon 
for four years. A promise to return, if peace was not agreed upon, 
was exacted from him ; and his captors supposed that all his influence 
would be exerted to effect an arrangement so much for his interest, 
especially as his life depended on the result. 

Arrived at Rome, he refused to enter the walls or to behold his 
dwelling, alleging that he was still a slave of the Carthagenians. 
A council was held by the senate, and proposals of peace were made 
by the ambassadors. The Romans, wearied with a war which had 
now been protracted more than eight years, were not averse to the 
proposition. But, to the surprise of all, Regulus, who gave his 
opinion last, strongly advised against any other course than that of 
continuing the war. The senate, moved by this magnanimity, were 
unwilling to devote him to certain destruction ; but he insisted on 
the correctness of his views, refused to consent to a peace, and, amid 
the lamentations of the whole city, returned to Carthage with the 
ambassadors. The enraged and disappointed citizens put him to 
death with the most cruel and studied tortures. 

The war was now recommenced with fresh animosity. Victory 
soon declared itself with the Romans, who first, under Fabius Buteo, 
the consul, and again, under Lutatius Catulus, defeated their ene- 
mies at sea so signally, that their naval force was almost annihi- 
lated. The discomfited people now sued for peace, which was granted 
them only on the same terms which Regulus had formerly dictated 
at the gates of Carthage. They agreed to pay down a thousand 
talents of silver, (about one million of dollars,) to defray the 
expenses of the war, and, in ten years, two thousand two hundred 
more ; to quit Sicily entirely, to deliver up their prisoners, and never 
to molest a Roman ally, or come with a vessel of war within the 
Roman dominions. Thus ended the "First Punic War," (IT. C. 513,) 
after having lasted twenty-four years. 



EOME. 



143 



Soon after these events, the Romans, being at peace with all 
nations, began to give greater attention to the arts of polished and 
civilized life. Poetry began to flourish, especially satire; and the 
drama, principally formed on Greek models, succeeded. Pastoral 
and other poetry by degrees assumed its place, and became more 
refined and elegant. 

About U. C. 527, the Illyrians, a piratical nation, had despoiled 
certain subjects of Rome, and had murdered the ambassadors sent 
to complain and demand restitution. For this outrage, war was 
declared; many of their towns were taken, a great part of their 
country was compulsorily annexed to Rome, and a yearly tribute 
exacted from the remainder. 

The Gauls now made a fresh irruption into Italy, laying waste 
Etruria with fire and sword, till they had advanced within three 
days' journey of Rome. But the time had passed when these undis- 
ciplined barbarians, by the mere fury of their attack, could over- 
throw armies regularly disciplined. They were defeated by the 
consul with immense slaughter. Another victory was soon obtained 
by Marcellus, who slew their king with his own hand, and compelled 
them to retreat. They purchased peace on conditions which greatly 
strengthened the commonwealth. 



CHAPTER TI. 

THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. 

At last, the Carthagenians, recovered from their exhaustion, 
recommenced the war ; and opened hostilities by besieging Sagun- 
tum, a city of Spain, and a faithful ally of Rome. Desistance and 
redress being refused, both parties prepared for another contest. 

The Carthagenians were now commanded by Hannibal, the most 
extraordinary general of antiquity. Of remarkable address in win- 
ning the affections and commanding the minds of others, he was 
perfectly skilled in all personal exercises and accomplishments. 
He was gifted with untiring perseverance, with most remarkable 
talent in the art of war, and by his personal courage and power of 
endurance, set an example to all under his command. 



144 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

He possessed an hereditary enmity toward the Eomans; his 
father Hamilcar having caused him, in youth, solemnly to swear 
before the altar an eternal hatred and opposition to those enemies 
of his country. 

With equal boldness and sagacity, he determined to carry the war 
into Italy itself Leaving Hanno to secure his conquests in Spain, 
he raised a numerous army, and with a great force of elephants and 
cavalry, crossed the Pyrenees into Gaul, the modern France. March- 
ing with incredible celerity, and overcoming the most formidable 
obstacles, he arrived at the foot of the Alps, then covered with the 
snows of winter. 

Entering by the pass which appeared most practicable, (supposed 
to have been the lesser St. Bernard,) he pursued his Avay for fifteen 
days, amid difficulties which seemed almost insurmountable, and at 
last beheld the fertile plains of Italy spread before him. This terri- 
ble march had been commenced with upwards of an hundred 
thousand men; of which there remained on his arrival into Gaul 
fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse. Thirty -seven elephants 
only had survived the passage. These forces were yet further greatly 
reduced by the passage of the Alps. Scipio, who was sent to 
oppose him, retreated with considerable loss, while his adversary, by 
conciliating treatment, largely recruited his forces from the Gauls, 
through whose country he was passing.* 

A second battle was fought on the banks of the river Trebia, 
where the Carthagenian, by an artful manoeuvre, enticing the enemy 
to ford the river, easily defeated them, fatigued with the passage and 
benumbed by the coldness of the water. Twenty-six thousand were 
slain or drowned, and the remainder, ten thousand in number, 
fighting desperately, broke through the opposing ranks, and retreated 
to Placentia. 

The Romans sustained another and most terrible defeat near the 
lake of Thrasymene, where the scene of battle is still pointed out. 
The Carthagenian troops were posted on an eminence, overlooking 
the lake, and Flaminius, the Roman consul, imprudently led his 
forces into a narrow defile beneath it. So desperate was the contest 
that, according to Livy, during the battle, 

"An earthquake reeled unheededly away;" 

* The term Gallia (Gaul) was at this time applied to a vast region, extending 
from the Pyrenees into the north of Italy. 



KOME. 145 

the fury of the combatants not allowing them to perceive it. The 
Romans were utterly defeated, with a loss of their general and 
fifteen thousand men. Six thousand were made prisoners. Tradi- 
tion has still preserved the remembrance of this ancient fight among 
the inhabitants, and a little rivulet still retains the name given it by 
the carnage of that day : 

* * * "And Sanguinetto* tells ye where the dead 
Made the earth wet, and turned the unwilling waters red." 

These successive disasters created the greatest consternation at 
Rome. Fabius Maximus, a commander of the highest reputation, 
was next appointed general, and determined upon pursuing an 
entirely new system of strategy. Avoiding a general engagement, 
he kept upon the higher ground, and harassed the enemy with 
annoying attacks, distressing his quarters, and cutting off his pro- 
visions. At one time he had enclosed the Carthagenians among 
mountains in such a manner that their extrication seemed impossi- 
ble, when Hannibal by a singular device forced his passage during 
the night. 

The term of office for which Fabius was elected having expired, 
he was succeeded by Terentius Varro, a rash and ignorant man, and 
by Paulus Emilius, a brave and prudent general. The colleagues, 
whose army was now increased to ninety thousand, marched in quest 
of Hannibal, who was encamped near the village of Cannse, with a 
force of about half that number. By an unwise arrangement, the 
two Roman generals, each in turn, commanded for a day. Emilius 
was averse to an engagement; but Varro on his day, without con- 
sulting his colleague, commenced the action. 

The Romans, ill-directed, and inferior in cavalry to their opponents, 
and embarrassed moreover by clouds of dust, which blew in their 
faces, were, after desperate exertions, routed and put to flight. 
Emilius, refusing to fly, died valiantly in the midst of the enemy, 
and an immense slaughter of his forces ensued. In this battle, the 
most disastrous that Roman arms ever experienced, fifty thousand 
men were left dead upon the field. 

At Rome, though firstly struck with consternation, the people 
bravely prepared for further hostilities. Thanks were even returned 
to Varro for not having despaired of the safety of the republic. 

* Sanguinetto. Literally, " the bloody brook," a name which, from similar circum- 
stances, hns been applied to streams in our own country. 

10 



146 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Fabius and Marcellus were again appointed to the command. Han- 
nibal now offered peace, but it was refused, as in the time of 
Pyrrbus, except on condition of bis evacuating Italy. 

Unable to march upon Eome, the Carthagenian general led his 
forces to Capua, where the softness of the climate, and the luxurious 
habits of the place, did much to enervate and enfeeble them. Up 
to this time, his career had been one of unvaried and astonishing 
success, A series of reverses now awaited him. Soon after the 
battle of Cannae, he was repulsed in an attempt upon the city of 
Naples, and, laying siege to Nola, a small town, met with a 
considerable loss from a sudden sally of Marcellus (U. C. 544). 

The war had been prolonged between the two armies for some 
3^ears, without any decided advantage on either side, when the Car- 
thagenian senate resolved to send a body of troops to the assistance 
of their general, under his brother Asdrubal. After experiencing 
long and vexatious delays, the latter, emulating the exploit of Han- 
nibal, advanced by forced marches to Italy ; but was intercepted and 
defeated, with the loss of his life, by the consuls Nero and Livius. 

The Koman arms were not less successful elsewhere. Marcellus 
took the city of Syracuse, so ingeniously defended by the philoso- 
pher Archimedes. This great man, to the grief of the Roman 
general, was killed by a soldier while meditating in his study. In 
Spain, where two of the Scipio's had been slain, a third, the cele- 
brated Scipio Africanus, was destined to retrieve the fortunes of his 
family and of the Roman people. 

This famous commander was equally distinguished for his martial 
talents, and for the gentleness and amiability of his character. 
After subduing the forces of the enemy in Spain, he returned to 
Rome, and was chosen consul at the age of twenty-nine. He now 
resolved again to carry the war into Africa, and to divert the scene 
of contest from his own country. Soon after landing, he found 
himself opposed by Hanno; but the latter was defeated and slain. 
Syphax, who had usurped the throne of Numidia, led a large army 
against him. This prince, attacked in his camp, was also defeated, 
with the loss of an immense number of his followers. Carthage 
itself was now threatened with a siege, and positive commands were 
despatched to Hannibal that he should return for its defence. With 
the greatest grief and vexation he complied ; and with tears quitted 
that Italy which he had once almost conquered, and whose most 
beautiful regions he had held for sixteen years. 



EOME. 



147 



Arrived in Africa, lie marclied. to Zama, a city witliin five days' 
journey of Carthage; and the Koman general, reinforced by Massin- 
issa the Numidian with six thousand cavalry, advanced to meet him. 
Negotiations for peace being vainly attempted, both parties prepared 
for battle; and the attack was commenced by the Carthagenians 
with their elephants. These being driven back, caused, as usual in 
such an event, the greatest confusion in their own ranks; and the 
Romans, with the assistance of Massinissa, who attacked their enemy 
in the rear, gained a complete victory. Twenty thousand Cartha- 
genians were killed in the battle and the pursuit, and as many more 
were taken prisoners. Hannibal, having done every thing which 
skill and courage could accomplish, fled with a small escort to 
Adramentum. 

By advice of their general, the defeated nation now sued for peace ; 
which was only granted them on conditions as severe as those to 
which they had formerly submitted. They were compelled by 
these to quit Spain and all the Mediterranean islands; to pay ten 
thousand talents (about ten millions of dollars) within fifty years, to 
deliver up their ships and elephants, and to make no war in Africa 
without permission of the Romans. Thus closed the "Second 
Punic War," after having lasted seventeen years, during which, 
Italy, Spain, and Africa had been the scene of fierce contention. 



CHAPTEK ?IL 

THE WARS WITH MACEDON, AND THE THIRD PFNIC WAR. 

During this time the Romans, at the solicitation of Athens, and 
in pursuance of their usual aggrandizing policy, had been also 
actively engaged in war with Macedon. Philip, king of that coun- 
try, had been defeated in several engagements by the consul Galba 
and by Quintus Flaminius. He was obhged to purchase a peace on 
expensive terms, and for the present the liberties of Greece seemed 
restored. 

They were next engaged in war with Antiochus, king of Syria; 



148 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

who finally, with, an immense army, suffered a complete defeat from 
Scipio, near the city of Magnesia, and was compelled to submit to 
the severest conditions of peace. One of these was, to deliver up 
to the Komans their ancient enemy Hannibal, who, in his old age, 
had entered the service of Antiochus, and had been promoted by 
him to the command of his fleet. This celebrated general, quitting 
the country secretly, wandered among various states, vainly seek- 
ing protection, and at last took refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. 
-iiEmilius was sent to demand him, and the persecuted chief, per- 
ceiving that it was intended to surrender him, ended his days by 
poison. 

Rome was next engaged in a second war with Macedon (U. G. 553). 
Perseus, the son of Philip, after protracting the contest for three 
years, was completely defeated by ./Emilius, captured, and reserved 
to adorn the triumph* of his adversary. 

The fate of the unhappy Carthagenians was next resolved upon, 
and a pretext was readily found for recommencing hostilities. 
Massinissa, who had been restored by the Romans to the throne of 
Numidia, invaded a portion of their territory. Their defence 
against this attack was construed into an infraction of the treaty, 
and it was resolved to demolish their city, and for ever rid the 
Roman people of an enemy who had been so formidable. 

It is said that Cato, whenever the subject was introduced in the 
senate, invariably ended his remarks with the same inexorable 
sentence, "Delenda est Cartago," — " Carthage must he destroyed.'''' In 
spite of the entreaties of the unfortunate inhabitants, they were 
ordered to quit their city, that it might be levelled to the ground. 

Finding their supplications to the consuls ineffectual, they departed 
to their homes, resolved, with the courage of despair, to defend 
them to the last extremity. Every thing was now sacrificed to the 
terrible emergency. Vessels of gold and silver were converted into 
arms; the luxuriant tresses of the women were surrendered for 
bowstrings. Hasdrubal, their general, who had been imprisoned to 
appease the Romans, was placed in command, and the consuls 
arriving before the walls, found them strongly and skilfully fortified. 
Several attacks were repulsed with loss to the assailants, who had 
serious thoughts of raising the siege. Scipio ^milianus was now 

* It was customary at Rome, after any conquest or splendid exploit, to grant the 
successful commander a triumphal procession into the city, in which trophies of the 
enemy and any distinguished captives were exhibited to the people. 



EOME. 149 

appointed to the command, and by the treachery of Phaneas, the 
master of the Carthagenian cavalry, he soon turned the tide of 
affairs. The walls were at last demolished, and the city, after an 
obstinate defence, taken ; many of its defenders throwing themselves 
into the flames rather than surrender. The city was levelled to the 
ground. Thus fell Carthage, after having flourished about seven 
hundred and fifty years, during a part of which, it had been among 
the most powerful of nations. 

Fresh conquests succeeded. ISTumantia, the most important city 
in Spain, was besieged by Scipio, and the inhabitants, in despair, 
set fire to it, and perished in the flames of their dwellings. All 
Spain was soon conquered, and formed into a Roman province, 
governed by two prsetors, appointed annually. 

The splendid city of Corinth was also taken and demolished by 
the consul Mummius. Many of the treasures of art which it con- 
tained were carried to Rome, and served as useful examples to the 
Italians in their future progress toward refinement. As an instance 
of their ignorance at this time of the true value of these monuments 
of genius, it is related that Mummius, to deter his soldiers from 
wanton injury, assured them that if they destroyed any statues or 
paintings, they would be compelled to make new ones to replace them. 



CHAPTER YIII. 

THE GRACCHI. THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. THE CIVIL 

WARS OF MARIUS AND SYLLA. 

The state, increased in wealth and numbers, soon after became a 
prey to domestic dissensions (U. C. 621). The overbearing influence 
of the patricians had formerly been repressed by a law called the 
Licinian, which provided that no one should hold in possession more 
than five hundred acres of land. Through the influence of Tiberius 
Gracchus, an eloquent and ambitious leader of the people, this law, 
to the great indignation of the nobles, was reenaeted. A fresh 
cause of dispute arose in a valuable legacy bequeathed to the nation 



150 I'lIE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IlISTOKY. 

by a foreign prince. Gracclius proposed that tliis sliould be divided 
among the people. AVhile haranguing them, an attack was made 
upon him by the partisans of the senate, and, witli three hundred 
of his party, he was slain. In justification of this outrage, it was 
given out that he was aspiring to the sovereignty. 

By this act of violence, the aristocratic party gained a temporary 
cessation from popular opposition ; but a new and more formidable 
opponent awaited them. Caius, the brother of their victim, had 
been overlooked in the massacre on account of his youth; but 
having attained to maturer years, he acquired a high reputation in 
the army for virtue and courage. The king of Nvimidia, sending a 
present of corn to Rome, desired his ambassadors to say that the 
offering was a compliment to the merits of Caius Gracchus. The 
senate, indignant at this mark of attention to their hereditary foe, 
dismissed them with contempt, as barbarians. They could hardly 
have taken a step more fatal to their own interests. Gracchus 
immediately left the army, came to Rome, was elected tribune, in 
spite of all their opposition, and prepared to stand forward as the 
champion of popular rights. 

He commenced his attack by a scrutiny into the corruptions of 
the senate; and the greater part of its members being found guilty 
of bribery, extortion, and other venalities, the trial of magistrates 
was transferred to the knights. Among other popular measures, he 
regulated the sale of corn, and extended the freedom of the city to 
all on the Italian side of the Alps — a measure designed to hold in 
check the patrician influence within the walls. The Licinian law 
was again revived. The patrician party left no means of opposition 
unused. Opimius, the consul, enlisted a number of mercenaries in 
his service, and sought by all methods to provoke an open contest. 
In his third competition for the tribuneship, Gracchus was defeated ; 
it was supposed through the falsity of the returning of&cers. 

After various quarrels between the two parties, Gracchus and his 
followers left the city, and encamped on Mount Aventine. A reward 
was offered by the senate for his head, and for that of Flaccus, a 
popular tribune. The people gradually falling off, Opimius, with an 
armed force, made a furious attack upon the remainder, and slaugh- 
tered three thousand unresisting citizens. Gracchus, pursued by 
the enemy, took refuge in a grove dedicated to the Furies, and there 
persuaded a slave, who followed him, to take his life. These trans- 
actions, which lasted a number of years, have iTSually been called 



EOME. 251 

"the sedition of the Gracchi," but seem rather to deserve the title 
of a civil dispute, in which the patricians, from their violence and 
martial spirit, gained the advantage. The nation was now subjected 
to an odious aristocracy, composed not only of the nobles, but of 
all who had acquired wealth. By means of the laws concerning 
debt, the poorer classes were almost effectually enslaved; and the 
tribunes, prosperous themselves, no longer stood forward in defence 
of their rights, but rather aided the nobility. 

A war in Africa next engaged the attention of the nation. 
Jugurtha, a grandson of Massinissa, and usurper of the throne of 
Numidia, had murdered Hiempsal, the rightful heir, whose brother 
Adherbal fled to Rome, and entreated assistance. The ambassadors 
of Jugurtha, by large bribes to the senate, procured the most 
valuable share of the kingdom to be decreed to their master; and 
he soon took advantage of this position to besiege, capture, and 
murder Adherbal. 

To avenge this crime and the slight thrown upon Rome, an army 
was sent against him, which was beaten, and obliged to pass under 
the yoke. Metellus, the succeeding consul, took command ; and in 
the course of two years, defeated the usurper in several battles, and 
forced him to fly the country, and sue for peace. By an artful 
intrigue, Caius Marius, his lieutenant, a man of great talent, ferocity, 
and courage, obtained the consulship for himself, and reaped all the 
fruits of victory. Jugurtha, in despair, sought the aid of his father- 
in-law, Bocchus, king of Mauritania. After meeting with some 
slight success, they were defeated, with immense loss, in two engage- 
ments. By the artful persuasions of Sylla the quaestor, the Mauri- 
tanian treacherously consented to deliver up his guest; who, being 
entrapped, under pretext of an interview, was carried in chains to 
Rome, adorned the triumph of his victor, and perished of starvation 
in prison. 

About this time most of the Italian states had entered into a con- 
federacy against Rome to extort from the senate an admission to 
the freedom of the city, and for the redress of other grievances ; and 
the contest which followed, called "the Social War," lasted for two 
years. The senate then yielded to their demands for the most part, 
and arms were laid aside, after the most devastating slaughter on 
both sides. Two victories, which Marius gained over the Gauls, 
increased his renown ; and, supported by the popular party, he began 
to entertain the most ambitious hopes. 



152 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Mithridates, king of Pontus, the most powerful monarch of the 
East, was the enemy whom Rome next encountered. The command 
of the forces despatched against him was, by an intrigue of Marius, 
transferred from Sylla to himself The soldiers, however, refused 
to accept the change, put to death the officers whom he sent, and, 
placing Sylla at their head, marched to Rome. Marius and his party, 
after vainly opposing them, were compelled to seek safety in flight ; 
and Sylla found himself in complete possession of the city. The 
defeated leader, at the age of seventy, was declared a public enemy. 
Closely pursued, he took refuge in the marshes of Minturnas, and 
being there discovered, was carried prisoner to a neighbouring 
town. The governor, solicitous of pleasing the successful party, 
sent a Cimbrian slave to despatch him in prison ; but the barbarian 
was so much awed by the fierceness and majesty of his demeanour, 
that he returned, saying it was impossible. His master, touched at 
this circumstance, dismissed his prisoner, and supplied him with a 
ship to leave the shores of Italy. 

Repelled from Sicily, he landed in Africa, and seated himself 
among the ruins of Carthage, a scene congenial to his fallen for- 
tunes. Ordered to retire by the Roman praetor, he spent the winter 
at sea, vainly endeavouring to find a refuge with some protecting 
power. "While in this deplorable situation, he learned that Cinna, 
an able member of his faction, had raised a large army in Italy, and 
was anticipating a successful movement against the predominant fac- 
tion. Marius hastened to join him. 

Sylla was absent, contending with Mithridates, and his opponents, 
entering the city, made a terrible slaughter among all who were 
obnoxious to them. They then caused themselves to be declared 
consuls, and shortly afterwards Marius died, glutted in his last hours 
with ambition and revenge. 

Sylla, on hearing the news, at once made peace with Mithridates, 
and set out on his return. Cinna, while making preparations to 
oppose him, perished in a mutiny, and Scipio, the consul, having 
agreed on an armistice, his troops, seduced by those of Sylla, left 
him in a body. The younger Marius, who inherited the talents and 
ambition of his father, still maintained a claim to the supreme 
authority; but eight legions of his army were defeated by Pompey 
(afterwards the Great), and the remainder, under Carbo and Urba- 
nus, by Metellus. Sylla again entered Rome in triumph, and, 
while addressing the senate in a quiet manner, caused eight thousand 



EOME. 



153 



of Ms enemies to be put to death. He furtlaer proscribed an infinite 
number of senators, knights, and wealthy citizens. 

Invested with an absolute and perpetual dictatorship, he ruled 
with the caprice of tyranny for three years, and then, to the surprise 
of every one, resigned his authority, and retired into the country, 
where death soon overtook him (U. C. 680). 



ij Sa> JX i i &i dii i tA) , 



THE FIRST TEIUMYIRATE, AND THE WARS OF POMPEY AND 

CiESAR. 



PoMPEY and Crassus were now the two most conspicuous charac- 
ters in the state; the first from his military reputation, the latter 
from his inordinate wealth. Each sought to obtain the popular 
favour ; Crassus by largesses to the people, and Pompey by proposing 
democratic laws. He had lately gained great popularity by suppress- 
ing the pirates, who in vast numbers had infested the Mediterranean. 
The tribunes, who supported his interests, next proposed and carried 
a decree that the war against Mithridates, and the government of 
all Asia, should be committed to him alone. Superseding Lucullus, 
he completely overthrew the enemy, and added large regions to the 
Roman dominion. 

Meanwhile, a great danger menaced the very existence of the 
republic at home. Cataline, a patrician of the greatest ambition, 
courage, and dissoluteness — utterly unscrupulous, and overwhelmed 
with debt — formed a conspiracy to overthrow the government. Many 
of the nobility, in desperate circumstances, joined the plot, and it was 
resolved that, by a simultaneous moveinent, a general insurrection 
should be raised throughout Italy, the capital fired, and the senate 
massacred. Lentulus, Cethegus, Gabinius, and many others of noble 
family, were implicated in this horrible design, and a part was assigned 
to each. 

By the address and vigilance of Cicero, who was then consul, 
their attempt in the city was disconcerted ; and the chief conspirators 
soon paid with their lives the penalty of their crime. Cataline, 



X54 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. 

escaping to Etruria, where lie had raised an army, took the field 
with twelve thousand men. Pursued by Petreius, the Eoman com- 
mander, they fought desperately, and were cut off almost to a man. 

Pompey had now returned from his conquests in the East, and 
the jealousy between him and Crassus was renewed. But a name 
destined to surpass them both was now becoming familiar on the 
lips of the Eoman people. Julius Caesar, a nephew of Marius, who 
had been praetor in Spain, returned with large resources and high 
reputation. He had alwaj^s been a favourite of the people, and a 
staunch supporter of popular decrees. By his intervention, the con- 
tending politicians were reconciled, and admitted the new comer into 
their councils. A triumvirate was thus formed, consisting of the 
three most influential men in the state, leagued together for mutual 
support, and entirely controlling the government (U. C. 694). 

Coesar was chosen consul, and farther ingratiated himself with the 
people, by procuring the passage of a new law for the division of 
public lands. By mutual agreement, the foreign provinces were 
shared among them. Pompey chose that of Spain, which, however, 
he governed by deput}?-, residing at his ease in Eome. Crassus 
selected Syria and the East; while to Cassar was assigned for five 
years the province of Gaul, offering an immense field for warlike 
operations. 

During his administration, which was continued for ten years, he 
performed the most remarkable exploits yet achieved by Eoman 
courage and discipline, fie subdued the Helvetians, with a loss of 
two hundred thousand of their fighting men ; reduced the Germans 
to submission ; and defeated the Belgi with a most terrible slaughter. 
The Nervii, the most warlike of these barbarous tribes, made a fierce 
resistance, and, though finally routed, at one time nearly destroyed 
the Eoman army. Having overcome the Celtic Gauls, and all the 
surrounding nations, he resolved to push his conquests into Britain. 
Landing with difficulty, he overcame all opposition, and granted 
peace to the natives, on delivery of hostages. Taking advantage of 
a storm, which destroyed a great part of his fleet, they renewed the 
contest with a numerous army, but were again defeated, and forced 
to submit. 

Pompey, meanwhile, had remained faithful to his interests at Eome ; 
but at last awaking to a sense of his diminished importance, endeav- 
oured secretly to undermine the reputation of his rival. The death 
of Crassus, who was killed in a war with the Parthians, removed 



EOME. 



155 



another tie wliicli had bound them together ; and the senate, acting 
under Pompey's influence, ordered home two legions from the army 
in Gaul. Cassar was next recalled from his government, the allotted 
term of which had nearly expired. 

Instead of complying, he advanced with his army to the confines 
of Italy, and wrote to the senate that he would lay down his arms, 
if Pompey, who was in command of the forces at Kome, would do 
the same. It was replied, that unless he disbanded his army, he 
should be declared an enemy to the commonwealth. With a portion 
of his forces, he arrived at the little river Eubicon, the boundary of 
Italy. After hesitating a moment at incurring the responsibility of 
a civil war, he cried out that "the die was cast," and plunged in, 
followed by his soldiers. 

Great consternation was excited at Eome, where Pompey was 
insufficiently prepared for defence. The senate espoused his cause, 
and, with the two legions which had been ordered home, he retired 
to Capua, pursued by Caesar, who took possession of the towns on his 
route. Pompey next retreated to Brundusium, whence, being besieged 
by his adversary, he sailed for Dyrrachium, leaving all Italy unde- 
fended, Csesar, unable to follow him for want of ships, marched to 
Eome, and plundered the treasury to an immense amount, to provide 
for carrying on the war. He thence went to Spain, defeated Pom- 
pey's lieutenants, in forty days made himself master of the whole 
province, and returned to Eome. The citizens, whose favourite he 
had always been, received him with enthusiasm, and conferred on 
him the offices of consul and dictator — the latter of which after a 
few dsijs he resigned. 

Pompey, meanwhile, assisted by all the eastern monarchs, made 
active preparations to oppose him, in Greece and Epirus. JSTine 
legions, with five hundred ships and an abundant supply of treasure 
and munitions of war, were at his disposal. He had defeated Cassar's 
lieutenants, Antony and Dolabella; and crowds of distinguished 
citizens and nobles flocked to his camp. Among these were two 
hundred senators, including Cicero and Cato. 

His rival now made overtures of peace, offering to refer all dis- 
putes to the senate and people of Eome. This was refused, and 
Cffesar transported his legions to the scene of warfare as fast as pos- 
sible. In the first battle he was entirely defeated, and pursued to his 
camp ; but Pompey neglected to secure the fruits of this advantage, 
which might have ended the contest. His enemy retreated to Thes- 



156 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

saly, and soon made himself master of tlie wiiole province, except 
Larissa, wMcli was held by Scipio with a legion of the army of 
Pompey. 

That general was now prevailed on by the entreaties of all around 
him to seek another battle, and, marching into Thessaly, encamped 
on the plains of Pharsalia, where, being joined by Scipio, he awaited 
the enemy. The event was anticipated with the greatest anxiety, 
as the fate of Rome and her immense dominions was staked upon 
the issue of the contest. The forces of Pompey amounted to above 
fifty thousand men ; those of Caesar, to less than half that number ; 
but these were veterans, accustomed to conquer, and trained in the 
rugged wars against the barbarians. 

The hostile force approaching, both parties prepared for action; 
and it is a remarkable proof of the excellence of Cesar's discipline, 
that both Pompey and he took under their immediate command 
such troops as had been trained and exercised by him — the one 
selecting the two legions from Gaul, and the other his celebrated 
tenth legion, victorious in a hundred fights. Pompey's cavalry, 
which charged first, was received in an unexpected manner, and the 
handsome young cavaliers of whom it was principally composed, 
were disconcerted, says Plutarch, by finding the blows of their 
enemies always directed against their eyes and faces. They were 
thrown into confusion, and fled ; and the foreign allies, after a long 
resistance, followed their example. The defeat became general, and 
a terrible slaughter was committed, though Csesar cried out to spare 
the Romans, who mostly received quarter. As he entered the 
enemy's camp, luxurious preparations for a banquet were found, so 
confident had they been of victory. The victor was strongly afiected 
as he beheld the field of battle strewn with the bodies of his coun- 
trymen, and exclaimed, as if in self-justification, " They would have 
it so!" He behaved with great clemency to the senators and other 
distinguished prisoners, giving them their liberty, and refusing to 
read their letters to Pompey, which had been taken. Fifteen thou- 
sand of Pompey's soldiers had been slain in this disastrous defeat, 
and the remainder, to the number of twenty -four thousand, joined 
the victorious army. 

The defeated general, in disguise, fled to Larissa, and thence 
passing along the vale of Tempe to the sea, espied a ship, in which, 
being acquainted with the master, he embarked. With his wife 
Cornelia, who joined him at Lesbos, he sailed for Egypt, hoping to 




THE OBSEQUIES OF FOMPET THE GREAT. 



■"'The murderers, having cut ofT Fompey's head, threw the body out oJ' the 
boat naked, and left it exposed to all Avho "were desirous of such a sight. 
Philip staid till their curiosity "was satisfied, and then "washed the hody "with 
sea "water, and "wrapped it in one of his o"wn garments. — — — — — An 
old Pv,oman, A^rho had made sonae of his first campaigns under Pompey, came 
up, and said to Philip, 'Who are you that are pjreparing the funeral of Pompey 
the Great?' Philip answered, 'I am his freedman.' — 'But you shall not,' said 
the old Pvoman, 'have this honour entirely to yourself. As a "work of piety 
offers itself, let me have a share in it, that I may not absol'ately repent msy 
having passed so many years in a foreign country; hut, to compensate many 
misfortunes, may have the consolation of doing some of the last honours to 
the greatest general E-ome ever produced.'" — Plutakch's Lives 



EOME. IQ'J 

find a refuge with Ptolemy. By order of tlie perfidious advisers of 
this prince he was assassinated, and his head embalmed and sent to 
Csesar ; who, however, turned in horror from the spectacle, and burst 
into tears. 

Having arrived in Egj'-pt with forty thousand men, and finding 
his rival no more, he undertook, as Eoman consul, to settle the 
succession to the throne, which was disputed between Ptolemy and 
his sister, the famous Cleopatra (U. C. 706). Meeting with a vigor- 
ous resistance from the supporters of Ptolemy, he espoused the 
cause of Cleopatra; who, by her charms and address, gained him 
entirely over to her wishes. He soon found his undertaking a 
difl&cult one ; was besieged in Alexandria, and nearly lost his life ; 
but was at length relieved by a faithful adherent, Mithridates 
Pergamenus, who marched to his assistance with a numerous army. 
Having effected a junction, the allies defeated the Egyptians with 
great loss; Ptolemy lost his Hfe, and Cassar found himself in undis- 
puted possession of Egypt. 

After appointing Cleopatra (by whom he had a son, Cesarion,) 
queen of the country, and after revelling in her company for a long 
time, he was aroused by the necessity of opposing Pharnaces, son 
of the great Mithridates, who had seized Armenia and Colchis, and 
defeated the Roman legate. He was defeated in his turn by Caesar, 
with such ease and expedition, that the victor, in giving an account 
of the affair at Rome, simply wrote, " Vem, vidi^ vicir — "I came, I 
saw, I conquered," 

In his absence he had been chosen consul, dictator, and tribune 
at Rome, whither he repaired in time to allay the disorders excited 
by his deputy, Antony, who had filled the place with riot and 
debauchery. Order being restored, he set out for Africa^ where the 
remains of Pompey's party had rallied under Scipio and Cato, 
assisted by Juba, king of Mauritania. He gained a complete victory, 
and all the opposing generals were slain, with the exception of Cato. 
This great man and true patriot, perceiving the liberties of his 
country at an end, destroyed his own life by falling on his sword. 

The victor returned to Rome, and astonished the people by the 
splendour of his triumphs. He next provided for the veterans who 
had served him so faithfully, and conciliated the citizens with shows 
and donations. Fresh honours and dignities were showered upon 
him by the subservient senate ; and his administration was so moder- 
ate and judicious, that he seemed in some degree to deserve them. 



258 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Cneius and Sextus, the sons of Pompey, and Labienus, his general, 
again raised the standard of civil war in Spain, and the dictator 
was compelled to leave Eome in person to oppose them. After the 
war had been protracted for some time by sieges and other fruitless 
operations, the two armies encountered in the field. After a most 
desperate contest, in which Caesar declared that he had often before 
fought for victory, but never for life till then, his opponents were 
defeated, with a loss of thirty thousand men, and the death of Cneius 
Pompey and Labienus. Sextus escaped, and afterwards became 
highly distinguished in naval warfare. 

The remainder of Csesar's life was passed in improving the city 
and the vast empire, which might now be considered almost entirely 
his own. He rebuilt Carthage and Corinth, commenced other works 
of public utility, and was revolving great plans of conquest and 
ex|)loration, when conspiracy put an end to his days. He had been 
created perpetual dictator, and was supposed to have an intention 
of assuming the title of king, a name always odious to the Eoman 
people. A scheme for his assassination was formed by no less than 
sixty senators and men of noble birth — ambition instigating some, 
and patriotism the rest. At the head of this design were Brutus, a 
descendant of the ancient patriot of that name, and Cassius, the 
praetors of Eome. Both had been pardoned by Caesar after the 
battle of Pharsalia, and he had distinguished Brutus by his friend- 
ship and many marks of favour. The terrible deed was consummated 
in the senate-house on the ides of March. The dictator, attacked 
on all sides by gleaming daggers, defended himself with great 
courage until he received a wound from Brutus, when he exclaimed, 
"Thou too, my son!" and covering his face with his mantle, yielded 
to his fate. He fell covered with wounds, at the base of Pompey's 
statue, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and after fourteen years of 
almost uninterrupted conquest (U. C. 710. B. C. 44). 



HOME. 



159 



u tl dX iJ jj Ja dPi tAj 



THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. 

After this terrible act, tlie conspirators retired to the capitol, 
which they fortified; Antony, the consul, and Lepidus, with their 
soldiers, occupied the forum, seized the papers and effects of the late 
dictator, and assembled the senate. This body, placed in an embar- 
rassing position, pursued a middle course, granting pardon to the 
conspirators, and yet confirming all the acts and decrees of Caesar. 
Antony took advantage of this, by falsifying accounts, to dispose 
of the immense wealth of the deceased to further his own views; 
and at the funeral highly inflamed the sympathy and indignation of 
the people. He read to them the will, in which it was provided that 
Octavius Csesar, his grand-nephew, should be his heir, and in which 
large bequests were made to the Koman people. Further showing 
them the bloody robe of Ctesar, covered with stabs, he excited such 
fury in the popular mind, that the conspirators thought it most 
pradent to retire from Rome. 

Two fresh competitors for power appeared ; young Octavius, and 
Lepidus, a man of ambition and great wealth. Antony thought it 
wise to enter into a league with these, and thus was formed the 
Second Triumvirate, an unprincipled dujue, holding in their hands 
the destiny of Rome and her numerous provinces. At their first 
meeting, it was determined that the government should be shared 
among them ; that all power should be lodged in their hands, under 
the title of the Triumvirate, for five years; that Lepidus should 
take Spain; Antony, Gaul; and Octavius, Africa and the islands. 
Italy and the eastern provinces were to remain undivided until all 
their enemies were suppressed. Lists of proscription were presented, 
and each surrendered his friends to the common cause: Lepidus, 
his brother Paulus; Antony, his uncle Lucius; and Octavius, the 
great Cicero. 

The principal conspirators, who had fled, raised each a powerful 
army, Brutus in Macedonia, and Cassius in Syria, where he com- 
pletely defeated Dolabella, Antony's lieutenant. Antony and 



IQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

Octavius, with forty legions, set out to meet them. After subduing 
the Lycians and Ehodians, Brutus and Cassius, whose forces were 
now united, approached the city of Philippi, in Macedon, where the 
triumvirs lay encamped. 

The forces on each side were great; those of the conspirators 
amounting to eighty thousand foot and twenty thousand of cavalry, 
and those of their opponents to an hundred thousand foot and 
thirteen thousand horse. The position of the former was the most 
advantageous, and in an endeavour to cut oS" their communication 
with the sea, a general engagement was brought on. The forces of 
the Triumvirate, Octavius being ill, were commanded by Antony, 
who made a fierce attack on the ranks of Cassius. Brutus, on his 
side, charging the enemy with great impetuosity, routed them, and 
penetrated to their very camp. While, however, they were engaged 
in plunder, the division of Cassius, in spite of his bravery and 
exertions, was defeated, and, supposing the battle lost, he put an 
end to his life. 

Brutus, now left in sole command, reassembled his army, and 
reanimated their courage. For twenty days he remained encamped, 
and then, at the urgent solicitation of his troops, hazarded another 
engagement. After gaining great advantages where he commanded 
in person, the battle was lost by the flight of the soldiers who had 
belonged to Cassius ; and after performing the most desperate feats 
of valour, he was compelled to retreat, and ended his life by falling 
on his sword. 

Their enemies subdued, the triumvirs divided the dominions of 
Eome, and pursued a career of irresponsible authority — ^Lepidus, 
however, having rather the semblance than the reality of power. 
Executions went on among the proscribed, and many of the first 
men in the empire were sacrificed to their vengeance. 

Antony now gave free vent to that lawless spirit of revelry and 
licentiousness for which he had always been notorious. Passing in a 
magnificent manner through the East, he distributed crowns, exacted 
tribute, and divided nations with his usual caprice. His most inti- 
mate friend was Herod, whom he made king of Judea, and his 
favourite mistress Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. Entirely capti- 
vated by her talents and beauty, he abandoned himself to pleasure, 
and committed a thousand extravagances. 

Meanwhile, Octavius, more prudently, led back the army into 
Italy, and conciliated the afiections of his soldiers by providing 



KOME. 



161 



them with lands. To effect this, he expelled from their homes a 
great number of unfortunate farmers and shepherds; among them 
the poet Virgil, who, however, had sufficient interest to regain his 
patrimony. Italy was now in great distress; the licentious soldiery 
plundered at their will, and Sextus Pompey, who was master of the 
seas, cut oi3f the usual supplies of corn, and added the terror of 
famine to the former calamities. A fresh civil war soon ensued. 

Fulvia, the wife, and Lucius, the brother of Antony, took up 
arms, under pretext that he had been overlooked in the distribution 
of lands. They were soon vanquished by Octavius, and Antony 
in person sailed with a large fleet to sustain his interests in Italy. 
Assisted by Sextus Pompey, he landed at Brundusium ; but, by the 
intervention of friends, peace was brought about, and was further 
confirmed by the marriage of Antony (his wife having died) to 
Octavia, the sister of his rival. 

A new division of the world was now agreed upon. Octavius 
took the Western portion of the empire, Antony the East, and 
Lepidus the provinces in Africa. The Peloponnesus, and many of 
the Mediterranean islands, were assigned to Pompey. 

This peace continued for some time; Antony carrying on war 
against the Parthians, Octavius being engaged in quieting the 
province of Gaul, and Pompey securing his new possessions. The 
latter, however, considering himself aggrieved by Antony, renewed 
hostilities, again cutting off supplies from Italy. Octavius, who 
encountered him at sea, was defeated, and his fleet, reinforced by 
Antony, was twice disabled by tempests. A second attempt, under 
Agrippa, was more successful, and Pompey, after resolutely contend- 
ing with ill fortune for some time, was taken and slain. 

Lepidus, who, on the death of Pompey, with a strong force had 
taken possession of Sicily, was next overthrown. Octavius, repair- 
ing boldly to his camp, deposed him by the aid of his own soldiers, 
and banished him to Circaeum. 

There now remained but one rival to his ambitious designs upon 
the empire of the world. Fortune seemed to second his wishes, for 
Antony returned in disgrace from his expedition against Parthia; 
and now, utterly neglectful of his interest, and that of the state, was 
spending his time in revelry and dissipation with Cleopatra. He 
granted her most of the adjoining countries, and Octavius, taking 
advantage of the dissatisfaction which these proceedings occasioned 
at Eome, sent out his wife Octavia, as if for the purpose of reclaim- 
11 



162 THE PEOPLE'S- BOOK OF IIISTOKY. 

ing him, but in reality, to gain a pretext for hostilities. The event 
answered his expectation ; Antony, without seeing his wife, ordered 
her to return, and completed his career of folly by repudiating her, 
and openly espousing Cleopatra. On this occasion, dressed in the 
character of Bacchus, (Cleopatra representing that of Isis,) he made 
a grand theatrical display in public, confirming all his previous 
grants, and associating her son Csesarion in the government; and 
concluded by sending a full account of his ridiculous pageant to the 
consuls at Eome. 

Octavius now prepared for war, but was detained for more than a 
year by his preparations, and by an insurrection of the lUyrians, 
which he found himself obliged to qiiell. At length, with immense 
and nearly equal forces, drawn from the east and west, the rivals 
met near Actium, a city of Epirus, on the gulf of Ambracia. The 
army of each amounted to about an hundred thousand men, but 
Antony's fleet, five hundred in number, was more numerous than 
that of his antagonist. 

The battle was fought by sea, their armies, from opposite sides of 
the gulf, surveying the scene, and encouraging the combatants. 
After the contest had continued with great fury for some time, it was 
decided against Antony by the flight of Cleopatra, who, with sixty 
sail, deserted the scene of action. She was soon followed by her 
lover, whose infatuated passion thus cost him the empire of the 
world. His army followed the example of their leader, and finally 
joined the ranks of the victor. 

He fled to Egypt with the queen, and each made proposals to 
Octavius of peace and submission. No answer was returned to 
Antony, and, imitating Timon the misanthropist, he shut himself 
up in a small house surrounded by the sea, and refused to hold 
intercourse with any one. The war was now transferred to Egypt, 
and Octavius marched on Alexandria. Antony, however, recallhig 
his accustomed courage, sallied out against him, and at first com- 
pletely repulsed the attack. Shortly afterwards, sending his fleet to 
engage the enemy, he had the mortification to see it join that of his 
rival, and return with it to the harbour. His cavalry also deserted 
in a body, a fresh assault which he made with his remaining forces 
was readily repulsed, and he was compelled to reenter the city. 

Cleopatra, whose treachery had connived at this desertion, for the 
sake of ingratiating herself with the victor, now retired to a strong 
citadel, where she had deposited all her treasures, in hopes to make 



KOME. ;[g3 

terms witli Octavius. Here she caused a report to be given out tliat 
she had destroyed herself, and Antony, deserted by all the world, 
and unwilling to survive his mistress, put an end to his own life — 
an example which was soon followed by the queen, that she might 
avoid gracing the triumph of the conqueror by her presence. Cesa- 
rion, and Antyllus the son of Antony, were also put to death by 
order of the victor. 



THE EMPERORS AUGUSTUS, TIBERIUS CALIGULA, AND CLAUDIUS. 

Octavius now found himself in undisputed possession of the 
Eoman empire, the most extensive and powerful which had ever 
existed. The genius of the nation and its ancient characteristics had 
become completely changed by the long and terrible commotions 
which had prevailed, and by the great influx of foreigners which 
resulted from its extended intercourse and conquests. The spirit of 
nationality no longer retained its ancient hold on the affections of the 
people, and, their armies being recruited from all parts of the world, 
courage and conquest were no longer the exclusive attributes of the 
Roman citizen. Great wealth and luxury, and the helplessness which 
accompanies them, began to characterize the capital, as well as a 
great part of Italy. In the midst of desolating civil wars, and of 
great corruption, both public and private, the Roman rule had, how- 
ever, continued to extend itself, and she was now in a position to 
dictate terms to any nation in the known world. 

The new dictator made a prudent and moderate use of the power 
acquired in such a sanguinary manner He reestablished the senate 
in almost its former authority, and apparently reserved nothing for 
himself but the prerogative of enforcing obedience to the laws. In 
reality, however, his will, as commander of the legions and provinces, 
was supreme, and the legislative body was, under him, what it sub- 
sequently became more openly under his successors, a mere instru- 
ment in the imperial hands. By the wise and gentle counsels of 
Maecenas, his prime adviser, his measures were usually tempered 



164 THE PEOPLE'S •BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

with humanity and liberality ; and the nation existed under, perhaps, 
as free a government as it was fitted to enjoy. Judicious patronage 
was also bestowed on learning and talent ; and the Augustan age, in 
which Horace, Virgil, and Ovid flourished, has always been regarded 
as a most brilliant period in letters. 

Whether from inclination, or from deep policy, he offered to resign 
all authority, and retire from public life. Entreated by the senate 
to retain his power, he consented to assume the government for ten 
years; a period which was subsequently protracted during his life. 

Fresh honours were heaped upon him. He received the name of 
Augustus (the august) and other titles of honour,* On the occasion 
of his receiving the consulship for the tenth time, all his acts, and 
even all which he should perform in future, were confirmed by the 
senate — absolute power being thus openly conferred upon him. 
These new honours and authorities, however, proved no temptation 
to a man who had already been possessed of unlimited control over 
the empire. His laws and edicts were, in general, judicious and 
moderate. His affability increased ; he allowed the greatest liberties 
to be taken in opposing and contradicting him ; and at times displayed 
high magnanimity toward his enemies. 

Meanwhile, his lieutenants, in various parts of the world, were 
busily employed in protecting and extending the empire. The Can- 
tabrians were subdued in Spain by his son-in-law, Tiberius, and 
the Germans by Lollius. The Scythians, Dacians, and Armenians, 
having taken up arms, were defeated and subdued. Equal success 
attended the Eoman arms in Africa, where the Getuli were reduced 
to submission by the consul Cossus. 

A more formidable contest was commenced by the Dalmatians 
and Pannonians, who, with more than two hundred thousand men, 
invaded the Roman territories. This war, which lasted for three 
years, was conducted by Tiberius and Germanicus, the latter of whom 
gained great renown by his exploits against these fierce and savage 
tribes. They were finally reduced; but a most fatal disaster shortly 
after befell the Eoman arms (IT. C. 752). 

Quintilius Varus, with a numerous army, composed of the choicest 
legions in the empire, was entangled among forests and marshes in 
Germany, and there, with all his forces, cut off by the barbarians. 

* The appellation of Csesar, to which Augustus had an hereditary claim, was 
afterwards assumed, in turn, by all the succeeding emperors. 



KOME. 165 

The grief of Augustus was extreme, and he was often heard to 
exclaim in sorrow, "Varus, restore me my legions!" 

Great domestic troubles also combined to afflict him : his wife, the 
empress Livia, was of an imperious temper, and insisted on controlling 
his measures ; his step-son Tiberius, of an unquiet disposition, was 
banished, and Drusus, another, whom he tenderly loved, died in an 
expedition against the Germans. The vicious and dissolute conduct 
of his daughter Julia also gave him great uneasiness. 

At length, in his seventy -fourth year, oppressed with age and the 
fatigues of public employment, he associated Tiberius with himself 
in the empire, and appointed him his successor. Feeling his end 
approaching, he made his will ; and shortly after took a census of the 
inhabitants of Rome, who amounted to upwards of four millions — 
a number twice that of London, the largest and most populous of 
modern cities. Shortly afterwards he died, having lived seventy-six 
years, and reigned forty-one. The display of grief at Rome, whether 
real or affected, was great, and divine honours were decreed by the 
senate to his memory (U. C. 765, A. D. 15.) 

Tiberius, at the age of fifty-six, succeeded him, and, for a time, 
gave a fair promise of emulating the prudence of his predecessor, and 
shunning his faults. The eyes of the people were soon opened, 
however, by the death of Germanicus, his nephew, of whose increas- 
ing fame he had become jealous, and whom he was supposed to have 
taken off by poison. His natural tendency to tyranny was enhanced 
by the evil counsels of Sejanus, his crafty and unscrupulous adviser. 
Always suspicious of conspiracy, and inclined to the most depraved 
vices, in the twelfth year of his reign the emperor left Rome for ever, 
and took up his residence in Capre^ (now Capri), a small and beau- 
tiful island in the bay of Naples, There, for ten years, immersed in 
the vilest sensualities, and exercising the most atrocious cruelties, he 
struck terror throughout the Roman empire. 

The children of Germanicus and many other persons of distinc- 
tion were put to death ; spies and informers were scattered through 
the cities, and the whole empire lived in perpetual distrust and alarm. 
Sejanus himself, falling under suspicion, was executed, to the great 
ioy of all, and numbers of his ftiends perished with him. 

At length, tormented by disease, and worn out by his vices, the 
tyrant himself expired in the twenty-third year of his reign, being 
murdered by the agents of Caius Caligula, the son of Germanicus, 
whom he had appointed his successor in the empire. 



1(36 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

The odious qualities of the new emperor were at first concealed; 
but, as in the case of Tiberius, soon displayed themselves. His 
vanity, avarice, cruelty, and vice were unequalled. He took the 
greatest pleasure in presiding at executions, and in witnessing and | 
protracting the agonies of the tortured. His wild animals were 
usually fed with the bodies of the numerous wretches whom he con- i 
demned ; and he is even said to have wished that the Eoman people \ 
had but a single neck, that he might destroy them at a single blow. 
Discontented with the highest of human stations, he assumed to I 
himself divine honours, and caused his statue to be erected in the \ 
temples throughout the empire With the caprice of unlimited 
power, he bestowed the highest honours upon a favourite horse; 
built him a palace, and even thought of appointing him to the 
consulship. He wished to suppress the works of Homer, and enacted 
so many other extravagances that it is but reasonable to suppose 
him partially insane. 

In the third year of his reign, (A. D. 41,) he undertook an expe- 
dition in person against the Germans and Britons, which, however, 
resulted in nothing ; and not long afterwards he was killed by Cherea, 
a tribune of the Prastorian bands, at the age of twenty -nine. 

His uncle, Claudius, a man of moderate abilities, was next pro- 
claimed emperor at the age of fift}^, by the army, whose choice was 
confirmed by the senate. He took possession of the royal palaces, 
and caused a great chest of poisons belonging to his late predecessor 
to be thrown into the Tiber — an injudicious act, if we may trust 
Suetonius, who says that they were of so deadly a nature as to destroy 
all the fish in the river. The first measure of the new emperor was 
to pass an act of amnesty for past offences, and to annul the savage 
edicts of Caligula. His administration was at first conducted with 
prudence, justice, and moderation. Having settled the affairs of 
several disputed provinces, he resolved to send an expedition into 
Britain, where his interference had been solicited by some of the 
natives. Under Plautius the praetor, the Britons, with their king, 
Cynobelinus, were several times defeated, and Claudius finally deter- 
mined to go over in person. He only remained sixteen days, yet 
the senate decreed him a splendid triumph on his return. Plautius 
and Vespasian, however, carried on the war with great diligence, 
and after thirty battles, succeeded in reducing a part of the island to 
a Eoman province. 

Under Ostorius, who succeeded Plautius, they again revolted, but 



EOME. IQJ 

were subdued, with the exception of the Silures or Welsh, who, in 
their inaccessible mountains, led by their brave king, Caractacus, 
made a most valiant and obstinate resistance for nine years. At 
length, being forced to hazard a decisive engagement, he was defeated, 
and, with his wife and daughter, taken prisoner. Being carried to 
Eome, the people evinced the greatest curiosity to behold the man 
who had so long withstood their arms ; while the captive prince, 
surveying the magnificence around him, wondered how such a peo- 
ple could covet his humble possessions in Britain. "With a somewhat 
unusual magnanimity in the Eomans, he was pardoned. 

Claudius, whose reign had for the most part been marked by 
laudable conduct, was now induced by his wife, Messalina, to adopt 
measures more severe and cruel. Her dissolute conduct, which was 
almost past belief, being discovered, she was condemned to death, and 
executed. The emperor was not more fortunate in his second wife, 
Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus; who rendered his life ex- 
ceedingly miserable, and finally destroyed him by poison (A. D. 55). 



\j Jjd> cuOj (L iL J-t duo tO&j Ji Ji a 

THE EMPERORS NERO, GALEA, VITELLIUS, VESPASIAN, TITUS, 
DOMITIAN, AND NERVA. 

Neeo, her son by a former marriage, succeeded to the throne at 
the age of seventeen; and, as usual, commenced his reign with the 
appearance (and perhaps, in some degree, the reality) of virtue, 
humanity, and justice. When a warrant of execution was presented 
for his signature, he cried out, "Oh, that I had never learned to 
write!" As he advanced in years, and felt the corrupting influence 
of irresponsible power, the viler part of his nature began to develop 
itself, and the people were soon shocked at the murder of his mother, 
Agrippina, who had become troublesome to him. His career now 
displayed a singular compound of pleasure and cruelty. He was 
fond of the fine arts, and was somewhat skilled in music and other 
humanizing accomplishments. These formed the occupation of his 



IQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

graver hours: his amusements were the invention and exercise of 
tortures and executions. His private vices were as enormous and 
unnatural as those of Tiberius and Caligula, and were displayed in 
public with the most shameless ostentation. During his reign, a great 
part of the city was consumed by fire, and this conflagration has 
been attributed to him; he certainly enjoyed the spectacle, surveying 
it from a high tower, and chanting some verses on the destruction 
of Troy. 

The Christians were now becoming a numerous sect in Eome, and 
upon them he endeavoured to fix the odium of the deed. The most 
horrible punishments were inflicted on them, and the indignation of 
the Eomans themselves (sufficiently hardened in general) was excited 
by the tortures which he devised to gratify his cruelty. 

Two of his most distinguished victims, whom he sacrificed on 
suspicion of conspiracy, were Seneca the philosopher, and Lucan the 
poet, whom he commanded to take their own lives. Many of the 
most eminent persons in Eome shared a similar fate. 

At length, Sergius Galba, the governor of Spain, entreated by the 
Eomans to deliver them from their oppressor, declared against him, 
and prepared to march toward the capital. The Preetorian guards 
also revolted, and the senate, perceiving his power at an end, decreed 
that he should be executed by scourging, after the rigorous manner 
of the ancient laws. To avoid this fate, he ended his life by stabbing 
himself in the throat (A. D. 69), in the fourteenth year of his reign 
and the thirty-second of his age. 

Galba, at the age of seventy-two, was proclaimed emperor, but 
after a reign of seven months, was killed in an insurrection of the 
soldiers, and Otho, their instigator, was chosen in his stead. The 
throne was now entirely at the disposition of the army, though the 
Praetorian bands at Eome arrogated to themselves a kind of special 
claim upon its disposal. 

Vitellius, who commanded in Germany, was proclaimed emperor 
by his legions, and a civil war ensued, which, however, was soon 
closed by the complete defeat of Otho and his forces. Ere long, he 
killed himself, after a reign of three months, and Vitellius was con- 
firmed in his office by the senate, now accustomed always to declare 
in favour of the strongest. 

The new emperor soon became abandoned to all the vices and 
cruelties of his predecessors. Gluttony, however, was his favourite 
pursuit, and he ruined his friends by inviting himself to the most 



EOME. 



169 



expensive entertainments at tlieir houses. The legions of the East, 
perceiving their power, revolted, and determined to make Vespasian, 
their commander, emperor. An army, sent to oppose them, was 
defeated bj Antonius, his lieutenant, near Cremona, with a loss of 
thirty thousand men. Domestic quarrels soon occurred at Eome, in 
which the capitol was laid in ashes. Antonius, arriving before the 
walls, commenced an assault, and the city was defended with great 
obstinacy by the imperial forces. Being finally taken by storm, a 
terrible slaughter ensued, and Vitellius, discovered in an obscure 
retreat, was killed by the soldiers, and his body cast into the Tiber 
(A. D. 70). 

Vespasian, by the unanimous consent of both army and senate, 
was now declared emperor, and set out for Eome, leaving his son 
Titus in command of the army destined for the reduction of Judea. 
The terrible siege and destruction of Jerusalem which ensued, have 
been elsewhere described. The triumph, which was shared by Ves- 
pasian and his son, was one of the most magnificent which Eome 
had ever witnessed ; and a triumphal arch, erected in commemoration 
of the victory, yet remains, bearing the effigies of the sacred instru- 
ments and writings of the Jewish nation. Vespasian reigned eight 
years, generally with justice, though the imputation of avarice and 
sensuality is attached to his memory. 

He was succeeded by Titus, (A. D. 79,) the stain left by whose 
former cruelty and vices, was to some extent effaced by the pru- 
dence and justice of his reign, which in some degree resembled that 
of Augustus, During his time, occurred the terrible eruption of 
Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum and Pom- 
peii, and in which Pliny the Elder, the eminent naturalist, lost his 
life. A'terrible fire also occurred at Eome, succeeded by a dreadful 
plague, in which ten thousand were buried in a single day. 

Meanwhile, the Eomans had met with great success in Britain. 
Agricola, their commander, had subdued nearly the whole island, 
and converted it effectually into a Eoman province. The language 
and refinements of the victors were introduced. Fortresses, tem- 
ples, and theatres were erected, and the people, formerly a race of 
barbarians, became almost as polished and luxurious as their 
conquerors. 

Titus, after a reign of only two years, expired, in the forty-first 
year of his age, and was succeeded by his brother Domitian 
(A. D. 81). 



170 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

At first, the reign of the new emperor seemed distinguished by 
decency, justice, and other virtues suited to his high station; but 
the mask was soon thrown off, and he emulated the vices and cruel- 
ties which had disgraced most of his predecessors. The splendid 
successes of Agricola excited his envy. That distinguished of&cer 
had lately subdued the Caledonians or Scotch; and sending out a 
fleet to circumnavigate the coast, had discovered Britain to be an 
island. He also discovered and reduced the Orkneys, forming the 
whole country into a civilized Roman dependency. Deprived of his 
command, under pretext of his assuming that of the army in Syria, 
he returned to Rome, and soon after died, not without suspicion of 
unfair means used by the emperor. 

Symptoms of that decline in courage and discipline which eventu- 
ally caused the destruction of the empire, were beginning at this 
time to show themselves. The Sarmatians and Dacians had already 
become formidable by their incursions, and in several engagements 
had defeated the Romans. They were, however, finally repelled, 
and further pacified by subsidies of money; a precedent which 
afterwards produced the most evil effects. 

The cruelty and arrogance of the tyrant increased. Executions 
on the most frivolous pretexts became as common as in the worst 
days of Tiberius and Caligula, and divine honours were assumed in 
the most impudent manner ; no statues of the emperor, except of 
gold and silver, being permitted. Lucius Antonius, governor of 
Grermany, seeing the general discontent, was encouraged to aspire to 
the throne, and accordingly assumed the imperial ensigns. Being 
supported by a powerful army, he maintained the contest for some 
time, but was finally routed by Normandus, the imperial legate. 
Fresh atrocities followed this unsuccessful attempt at revolt. The 
senate and all men of distinction were kept in a state of continual 
alarm for their lives. At last, after an exhibition of human nature 
in its worst and most degraded form, for fifteen years, Domitian fell 
the victim of a conspiracy, conducted by his wife and a number of 
his officers, who had accidentally discovered their names upon a list 
for execution (A. D. 96). 

His statues were immediately taken down by order of the senate, 
and his memory was loaded with every species of contempt. 

The senate, resolving to anticipate the decision of the army, 
appointed a successor on the very day which beheld the tyrant's 
death. Cocceius Nerva, the new emperor, a Spaniard by birth, was 



EOME. i71 

about sixtj-five years of age, and owed his exaltation to a life of 
virtue, justice, and clemency. His reign, which lasted one year and 
four months, was distinguished for honesty and magnanimity. 
Troubled by the mutinous spirit of the Praetorian bands, he appointed 
for his successor Ulpius Trajanus, the governor of Germany, and 
soon after expired, being the first foreign emperor who had sat upon 
the Eoman throne (A. D. 96). 



Li iLub Jjoi iL Jb cU UJU tOOo dj Jj Jj o 

TRAJAN, ADRIAN, ANTONINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, COMMODUS, 

PERTINAX, DIDIUS, SEVERUS, CARACALLA, MACRINUS, 

HELIOGABALUS, ALEXANDER, MAXAMIN, 

GORDIAN, PHILIP, AND DECIUS. 

Trajan, also a Spaniard by birth, and a pupil of the celebrated 
Plutarch, was a man of great talents, both for peace and war, and 
possessed the qualities of a wise and successful monarch in no ordi- 
nary degree. His first exploit was to subdue the Dacians, who had 
greatly infested the empire under the reign of Domitian. After an 
obstinate contest, Decabalus, their king, was routed, and compelled to 
acknowledge himself tributary to Rome, A second war, commenced 
by that king, and the capture of Longinus the Roman general, com- 
pelled the emperor again to take the field. To invade their country 
the more easily, he constructed a stupendous bridge across the 
Danube, and finally subdued their whole territory, and converted it 
into a Roman province. The empire now seemed at the height 
of its splendour ; the most magnificent triumphs were celebrated, and 
ambassadors from all parts, even from the remote regions of India, 
came to solicit his favour. 

His internal administration was equally successful and admirable, 
though stained by a bigotry not peculiar to his time alone. A gTeat 
persecution of the Christians occurred, and was only stayed by the 
proceedings of Pliny, whose statement of his researches seemed to 
prove their innocence. During the emperor's absence on an expedi- 
tion in the East, the Jews, throughout many provinces, revolted, and 



][72 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

commenced an indiscriminate massacre of tlie Greeks and Eomans. 
In retaliation, they were every where put to death without mercy, 
Trajan, learning of these disorders, started on his return; but over- 
powered by illness, died at Seleucia, in the sixty-third year of his 
age, and the twentieth of his reign (A, D. 107). 

Adrian, his nephew, who succeeded to the throne, was of a 
pacific disposition, and his accomplishments in art and learning were 
great. His private virtues, his magnanimity and benevolence, were 
no less conspicuous, though somewhat obscured by vices and sensu- 
alities peculiar to the age. The northern barbarians again becoming 
troublesome, he broke down the immense bridge which his prede-, 
cessor had constructed over the Danube, and thus for a time checked 
their incursions. 

He next prepared to make the tour of his extensive dominions, 
that he might personally regulate and oversee the administration of 
each province. Passing through Gaul, Germany, and Holland, he 
sailed to Britain, and there, for the protection of the province 
against the Picts, and other barbarous Scottish tribes, built a wall 
across the island. He thence passed into Spain, his native country, 
and returned to Eome. Called to the East by an insurrection of the 
Parthians, he passed the winter in Athens, and at the intercession of 
Granianus, put a stop to the persecutions exercised against the Chris- 
tians. He passed into Africa, reformed the government of the 
province, and, among other public works, rebuilt the city of Carthage, 
which he called, after his own name, Adrianople. After visiting- 
many provinces of the East, and among them Judea, he determined 
to rebuild the city of Jerusalem; and the Jews flocked in great 
numbers to the pious undertaking. Their bigotry, however, incensed 
at the privileges granted to foreigners, inducing them again to attack 
and massacre the Greeks and Eomans throughout their country, 
Severus, an able commander, was sent against them, and in a war of 
two years, demolished most of their cities, and put an immense 
number of them to the sword. A decree was also issiied, banishing 
the whole race from Judea. 

This insurrection was soon followed by an invasion of the bar- 
barous nations from the north, who, entering Media and Armenia, 
committed great devastations. Following the unwise precedent of 
Domitian, Adrian, by large sums of money, induced them to retire, 
and thus, as it were, offered a premium to repeated incursions. 

After thirteen years passed in survejnng his extensive dominions, 



ROME. 



173 



the emperor returned to Rome, where he was received with the 
greatest demonstrations of joj and popular attachment. His time 
was passed chiefly in literary pursuits, and in improving and human- 
izing the laws. Feeling the infirmities of age, he selected as his 
successor Marcus Antoninus, afterwards called the Pious, and soon 
after expired, in the sixty-second year of his age, having enjoyed a 
prosperous and popular reign of about twenty -four years (A. D. 138). 

Antoninus, the new emperor, was a native of the town in France 
now called Nismes, and succeeded to the throne at the age of fifty. 
His private and public career had been so unimpeachable that he 
was compared to Numa, and he was equally a lover and patron of 
learning with his predecessor. His reign for twenty -two years was 
peaceful and prosperous, and at the age of seventy-five he expired, 
having adopted as his successor Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 161). 

Aurelius, in compliance with a provision made by Adrian, asso- 
ciated with himself in the empire Lucius Verus, whose vice and 
indolence formed a strong contrast with the virtue and energy of 
his partner on the throne. Scarcely had they commenced their reign, 
when the empire was invaded on all sides by the barbarous nations 
which surrounded it. Those who attacked Germany were repelled, 
and the Britons, who had revolted, were subdued by Califurnius. 
But the Parthians, led by their king, Yolegesus, committed the great- 
est ravages, destroying the Eoman forces in Armenia, seizing Syria, 
and alarming the whole East for its safety. To repress this formida- 
ble invasion, Yerus set out in person ; but remaining at Antioch, left 
all the conduct of the war to his lieutenants, Priscus and Marius. 
These, however, carried on the contest with great skill and energy, 
and in the course of four years entirely subdued the invaders, 
though with a loss of half their own army. 

Aurelius, meanwhile, had been engaged in the careful and judi- 
cious administration of affairs at Rome ; and had so largely increased 
the authority of the senate, that the commonwealth seemed almost 
restored. The return of Verus brought fresh distresses on the 
empire, both by his dissolute conduct, and by a destructive plague 
which his army disseminated throughout the provinces. Various 
natural calamities, earthquakes, inundations, and famine succeeded; 
the barbarous nations of the north renewed their hostilities on all 
sides, and even carried their invasions into Italy. A terrible perse- 
cution of the Christians also raged throughout the empire, these 
calamities being ascribed to their impious innovations. 



174 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



The emperor, marching against the Marcomanni, defeated them 
in a great engagement, and pursued them across the Alps. His 
colleague, Yerus, dying about this time, he was left in entire posses- 
sion of the empire, and returned to Rome, but was recalled by a 
fresh irruption, which he also successfully resisted. Peace being 
restored, he devoted himself to learning and philosophy, in which 
he acquired great eminence. 

At length, having gone to Vienna to repress a new invasion of 
the Scythians, he was seized with the plague, of which he died, in 
the fifty-ninth year of his age, having reigned with virtue and j ustice 
for nineteen years (A. D, 180). 

His son, Commodus, who, on account of his father's virtues, was 
promoted to the throne, emulated the worst of his predecessors, in 
folly, cruelty, and crime. His vices, if it were possible, exceeded 
those of Tiberius and Caligula, and his ferocity was equal to that of 
Domitian. His death, like that of the latter, was accidentally brought 
about by the discovery of a roll on which the names of -some of 
his intimate associates were inscribed for execution. Anticipating 
the blow, they secretly assassinated him, in the thirty-first year of 
his age and the thirteenth of his reign (A. D. 191). 

Helvius Pertinax, who, amid the general joy of the nation, was 
chosen to succeed him, reigned for three months in the most exem- 
plary manner, and was then murdered in a mutiny of the Pr^torian 
bands, enraged at the order and discipline which he enforced. 

Having committed this outrage, they put up the empire (which 
their violence completely controlled) for sale to the highest bidder; 
and Didius, a person of some note, by the production of large sums 
of ready money, obtained their votes. Their choice Avas confirmed 
by the senate, who were unable to resist, and Didius, in the fifty- 
seventh 3^ear of his age, was proclaimed emperor. His conduct on 
the throne was of a neutral character, neither effecting any great 
designs, nor yet making himself odious by tyranny. The people, 
however, despised him, and as he passed through the streets, would 
cry out, that he Avas a thief, who had stolen the empire. The soldiers, 
also, by whose support he had been elevated, soon became tired of 
one who possessed neither courage nor liberality. 

Severus, an African, was now proclaimed emperor by his army, 
and, rejecting a proposal of Didius to share the throne, advanced 
upon Rome. The senate, as usual, deferring to the strongest, decreed 
that the unhappy emperor should be deposed and slain. 



EOME. 



175 



Severus, the new ruler, was distinguislied for his ability, and for 
a certain cunning and astuteness which were supposed peculiarly to 
characterize the natives of his country. By rewards and privileges, 
he so far conciliated the army as to have exclusive control of all 
things. Feeling his power secure at Eome, he marched against the 
Parthians, over whom he obtained signal successes, and returned in 
triumph. Plautian, a favourite officer, whom he had left in com- 
mand, conspired against his life. The plot being discovered, the 
emperor was inclined to pardon him, but the prince Caracalla, 
naturally of a ferocious disposition, drew his sword, and ran him 
through the body. 

The administration of Severus was marked by justice and impar- 
tiality. After regulating the affairs of Italy, he made an expedition 
into Britain, where the Romans were on the point of succumbing to 
the native population. Having left Caracalla in command of the 
southern province, he marched against the Caledonians, and after a 
long and desperate contest, in which he lost fifty thousand men, 
compelled them to purchase peace by the surrender of a consider- 
able part of their territories. For better security against their 
irruptions, he built the celebrated wall, extending from the Solway 
to the German Ocean, portions of which still remain in good preser- 
vation. He died at the city of York, in the sixty-sixth year of his 
age, having reigned in an able, though sometimes a cruel manner, for 
eighteen years (A. D. 211). 

His sons, Caracalla and Geta, whom he had appointed his success- 
ors, were acknowledged by the army ; and on their arrival at Eome, 
the latter was slain by his brother, whose cruelties soon became 
intolerable. During six years, he ruled after the manner of Nero 
and Domitian, and the empire lay entirely at the mercy of the 
soldiery. He was then assassinated by order of Macrinus, com- 
mander in Mesopotamia, who was proclaimed in his stead by the 
army, and confirmed as emperor by the senate (A. D. 217). After a 
reign of little more than a year, he was deposed and put to death by 
a seditious portion of his legions, and Bassianus, a youth of fourteen, 
supposed by them to be a son of Caracalla, was chosen in his place. 
On his elevation, he assumed the title of Heliogabalus (the sun) to 
whose priesthood he had been consecrated. During the four years in 
which he reigned, his licentiousness, gluttony, effeminacy, and prodi- 
gality, surpassed those of all his predecessors in empire and in vice. 
He was slain in a mutiny and his body thrown into the Tiber. 



I^JQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Alexander, liis cousin, was next proclaimed emperor, at sixteen. 
His virtues and abilities liave been liigblj celebrated. His admin- 
istration of public affairs was conscientious and judicious, and lie 
also excelled highly in various arts, sciences, and accomplishments. 
In the thirteenth year of his reign, the country was subjected to an 
invasion by immense tribes from upper Germany, and other northern 
barbarians. The emperor, proceeding to the field in person, was cut 
off in the midst of his successes by a mutiny — the usual fate of the 
latter Eoman emperors, whether good or bad. He was twenty-nine 
years old, and had reigned thirteen (A. D. 235). 

Maxamin, the ringleader of this sedition, a Thracian peasant by 
birth, and a man of gigantic stature, courage, and ferocity, was pro- 
claimed in his stead, and carried on the war with great skill and 
energy, laying waste the enemies' country for four hundred miles, 
and defeating them in repeated battles. - He had determined to con- 
quer all the north, and, to conciliate the soldiery, increased their 
pay, and fought hand to hand at their head. Wearied, however, 
by his cruelties, and fatigued with warfare, they killed him while 
sleeping in his tent, in the sixty -fifth year of his age, after a reign 
of three years. 

Papienus and Balbanus, who had been named as emperors, were 
both in a brief time slaughtered by the Prsetorian bands, and the 
mutinous soldiery placed Gordian, a youth of sixteen, upon the 
throne. After a sufiiciently prosperous reign of five years, he was 
ungratefully slain by Philip, the Prcetorian prsetor, whom the army 
immediately acknowledged (A. D. 243). 

After reigning about as long as his victim, he perished, as usual, 
by a mutiny, and the commander, Decius, was declared emperor 
by the army, (A. D. 248, U. C. 1001). His energy and wisdom 
seemed in some degree to revive the better days of the common- 
wealth; and the senate, whose authority he had increased, voted 
him equal to Trajan. 

The empire was now deeply distracted by continual contests 
between the Christians and heathens thror 2rhoiit its limits, and by 
perpetual irruptions of the barbarous nations upon its borders. 
The emperor was killed in an ambuscade of the enemy after a reign 
of two years and a half. 



EOME. I'j^ 



uiUAiixiliii Aiv 



GALLUS, YALERIAN, GALIENUS, FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS, AUUELIAN, 
TACITUS, PROBUS, CARUS, DIOCLESIAN, CONSTANTIUS 

AND GALERIUS, AND CONSTANTINE. REMOVAL 

OF THE SEAT OF EMPIRE TO BYZANTIUM. 

Gallus, wIlo succeeded to Decius, bouglit a disgraceful peace by 
paying an annual tribute to tbe Goths, tbus laying tbe foundation 
of future exaction and invasion. Under bis reign, a general license 
was given of persecuting tbe Christians throughout the empire. A 
tremendous pestilence also raged over a great part of the earth, 
^milianus, his lieutenant, having gained a victory over the Goths, 
was proclaimed emperor by the army, and in the civil war which 
ensued, Gallus, with his son, was slain in battle near Mesia, after a 
reign of little more than two years (A. J). 253). The claims of 
^milianus not being acknowledged by the senate, Yalerian, who 
commanded near the Alps, was elevated to the throne by his army, 
and endeavoured to effect some reformation in the corrupted state. 
He was soon taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, who had 
invaded Syria ; and it is said that the Persian, with unmanly insult 
toward his captive, was in the habit of using him as a footstool to 
mount his horse. After suffering every outrage and indignity for 
seven years, he was put to death with atrocious cruelty. 

On his imprisonment, Galienus, his son, was chosen emperor, and 
while enjoying the pleasures, without the fatigues of empire, a great 
number of competitors for power started up. These numerous 
rivals, usually called the Thirty Tyrants, filled the whole country 
with violence and civil war. Galienus, having taken the field to 
assert his authority, was slain by his own soldiers while laying siege 
to Milan (A. D. 268). 

Flavins Claudius, who had distinguished himself by services 
against the Goths, succeeded to the throne; which, however, he 
enjoyed but two years, dying of a fever in Pannonia. He was the 
first emperor who, for a long time, had met with a natural death. 

Aurelian, a Dacian, renowned i'or his generalship and personal 
12 



178 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY 



valour, was next elevated to the imperial rank, and conducted the 
government with great. energy and ability. Among other exploits, 
he took Palmyra, the celebrated "Tadmor" of Solomon, and brought 
the queen, Zenobia, to grace his triumph at Eome. He was slain 
in a conspiracy, in the sixty-third year of his age, after a reign of 
five years (A. D. 275). 

The senate, which had now regained much of its former authority, 
to supply his place, made choice of Tacitus, a man of worth and 
ability, but seventy-five years of age. In six months he died, and 
the army, by common consent, proclaimed Probus emperor. He 
had been distinguished for personal valour and integrity, and during 
a reign of six years, did much to repel the incursions of the barba- 
rians, now becoming more fierce and frequent on all sides. He was 
slain in a mutiny, the common fate of the latter emperors (A. D. 
282). Carus, his Praetorian prefect, who succeeded him, was killed 
by lightning; and his son Numerian, was assassinated by Aper, his 
father-in-law. The murderer, in his turn, was slain by Dioclesian, 
who ascended the throne (A; D. 284). 

He was of low parentage, but of great ability, and had served in 
various ofiices with much, distinction. A vast swarm of northern 
barbarians now infested the empire. Ketiring to their cold and 
inaccessible retreats at the approach of a Roman army, as soon as it 
was withdrawn they would sally forth, and commit fresh ravages. 
Among these savage tribes were the Scythians, Goths, Sarmatians, 
Alani, Catti, &c., who inhabited a region extending from Denmark 
to the eastern confines of Russia. They were repeatedly defeated 
by the emperor, who, after a reign of twenty years, retired from the 
government, and with him his partner Maximian, whom he had 
associated in the empire (A. D. 304, .U. C. 1057). 

The successors whom they appointed, Constantius and Galerius, 
were readily acknowledged. Both were men of courage, but the 
former was distinguished by his virtues, the latter by his vices. 
They shared the government of the empire, Constantius taking the 
west, and his colleague the East. Both died, and Constantine, son 
of the former, and afterwards called the Great, was appointed as 
successor to his father. 

Maxentius, a steady supporter of the ancient idolatrous faith, had 
possession of Rome, and Constantine marched against him. On this 
journey he is said to have seen a miraculous cross in the heavens, 
which caused his conversion to Christianit}^ The cause assigned is 



EOME. ■^'jy 

an exceedingly improbable one, but it is certain that lie professed 
tlie new religion, perhaps in deference to tbe wislies of liis soldiers, 
wlio were mostly Christians. With an army of about an hundred 
thousand, he advanced towards the gates of Eome; and his rival, 
with forces nearly twice as numerous, sallied forth to meet him. 
The engagement was fierce and destructive, but Maxentius was 
routed, and in the retreat lost his life. 

Being now in almost entire possession of the empire, Constantine 
abolished death by the cross, and issued edicts in favour of the 
Christians. Maximin, who held command in the east, ambitious of 
higher authority, marched upon Licinius, the partner of Constantine, 
with a numerous army, but was defeated, and soon after died. 

Mutual jealousy soon caused a fresh rupture between the col- 
leagaes themselves, and with powerful forces on each side, they met ; 
Licinius relying on the protection of the ancient divinities, and his 
adversary on the prayers of the Christian clergy. After several 
engagements, the former was defeated, and surrendered himself into 
the hands of Constantine, on condition that his life should be spared. 
The emperor, however, violating his agreement, put him to death. 

Finding himself now confirmed in supreme authority, he made 
Christianity the national religion, and invested the bishops with 
extensive powers. He was diligent in the suppression of heresy, 
and banished, among others, Arius, the celebrated promulgator of 
new doctrines, into a remote part of the empire. 

His domestic life was a tragic one ; and he put to death his wife 
Fausta, and his son Crispus, though for what provocation is not 
clearly understood. 

The most important measure of his reign, and one which may be 
said to have ended the history of the Roman empire, was his 
removal of the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, called 
after him, Constantinople. The nation had long been in an unset- 
tled and dangerous condition, from internal corruption and foreign 
invasion ; and this removal, by withdrawing from Italy the wealth 
and the forces necessary to protect her against the savage nations 
which surrounded her, was ultimately the cause of the destruction 
and dismemberment of the empire. 

The situation of the new capital was, and still remains, one of the 
most beautiful on earth. It lies on that magnificent strait, connect- 
ing the Euxine with the Mediterranean, the shores of which, even 
now, are for many leagues lined with palaces and temples. Here 



IQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the emperor built a splendid city, adorned with a capitol, an amphi- 
theatre, and many churches; and about two years afterwards, to the 
great mortification of the Eomans, removed thither, with all his 
court (A. D. 332, U. C. 1084). 

Ere long, the Goths took advantage of the withdrawal of the 
garrisons from the Danube, and ravaged the frontiers with great 
ferocity. They were, however, repulsed by Constantine, and lost 
nearly an hundred thousand of their number by famine and 
exposure. 

At the age of sixty-two, the emperor expired, after a long, active, 
and eventful reign of thirty-two years (A. D. 343). Before his 
death, he had divided the empire among his three sons ; Constantine, 
the eldest, having command of Gaul and the western provinces; 
Constantius, the second, of Africa and Illyricum ; and Constans, the 
youngest, of Italy. 



Uitiiiirxjiidil, JLV 



DECLINE AND DISSOLUTION OP THE EMPIRE. 



Feom this time the vast and unwieldy empire, which had so long 
given laws to the world, fell gradually into decay. Few of the princes 
who succeeded Constantine inherited his abilities ; and the history 
of Rome henceforth presents the painful spectacle of a degenerate 
nation, enervated by luxury and effeminacy, gradually becoming the 
prey of barbarous tribes, which possessed the rude courage and 
fierceness that had been the foundation of her own greatness. 

The northern races now commenced to pour down upon the fer- 
tile valleys and plains of Italy, in such vast numbers, that it seemed 
as if "the store-house of nations," the immense and unknown 
region whence they came, must at last be exhausted. Yet fresh 
hordes still poured forth to fill the places of those who perished in 
battle, or settled down on their newly-conquered possessions. 

The eastern emperors, degenerating into luxurious oriental 
potentates, offered in general but a feeble resistance. The reign of 



EOME. IQl 

Constantius, wlucli lasted thirty-eight years, was weak and ineffi- 
cient. Julian, who succeeded him, (called the Apostate, from his 
having returned to the ancient religion,) was indeed a wise and 
valiant monarch ; he expelled the barbarians from their new settle- 
ments on the Ehine, and during his reign, which lasted but two 
years, did much for the preservation of the empire. Among his 
successors, Jovian and Valentinian emulated his example, and the 
latter fortified the frontiers with castles, garrisons, and permanent 
stations of soldiery. 

A new and unexpected enemy was added to the former foes of 
the empire. The Huns and Alans, a fierce and numerous people 
from the south-east of Russia, leaving their unexplored regions, 
poured, in immense bodies, into the country of the Goths. The 
latter, driven into the Roman territories, in a fierce engagement, 
destroyed the emperor Valens and the greater part of his army. 

From this time, their own forces being lessened, and difficult to 
levy, it became customary among the emperors to engage one tribe 
of barbarians, by hire, to defend them against others; a pernicious 
practice, which brought the empire more and more under the power 
of its enemies. By a series of attacks, its limits became gradually 
diminished. The northern tribes seized on Thrace, Mysia, and 
Pannonia, and afterwards on Macedonia, Thessaly, and Greece 
itself. Italy was now defended only by its own frontier, and 
though Theodosius, by his valour and ability, kept the enemy at 
bay for a time, after his death they proceeded almost without 
opposition. 

Alaric, king of the Goths, with a large body of his troops, had 
been engaged to assist in the defence of the empire ; but perceiving 
the weak and inefficient rule of Arcadius and Honorius, the suc- 
cessors of Theodosius, thought he might turn his forces to better 
account by attacking his employers. For some years his success 
was doubtful; but at last receiving fresh reinforcements from the 
populous forests of the north, he passed the Alps, and overran the 
fertile plains of Italy. 

The inhabitants, enfeebled by long luxury, offered but little 
resistance, and the emperor Honorius, who was at Ravenna, did 
nothing to avert the storm. Rome itself, which for eight hundred 
years had not seen a foreign enemy at its gates, was besieged, and 
suffered the greatest extremities from famine and pestilence. The 
senate entreating terms of peace, the invader demanded all their 



][32 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

riclies and slaves. Being asked what lie would leave tliem, lie 
sternly answered "their lives;" and to these hard conditions they 
were compelled to submit. By surrendering all their valuables, and 
even stripping their temples, the invader was bought off for a time ; 
but, whether from avarice or vengeance, he returned, and gave the 
city up to plunder. During this terrible devastation, which con- 
tinued for three days, innumerable works of art and precious records 
were devoted to destruction (A. D. 410, U. C. 1163). 

Ere long the city was again ravaged by Genseric, king of the 
Yandals, and for fourteen days the inhabitants, the temples, habit- 
ations, and all it contained, were delivered up to the fury of his 
licentioiis soldiery. From this time the western portion of the 
empire was in effect at an end. The Yandals and other tribes had 
possession of Spain, and the Goths and Burgundians of Gaul. The 
Huns had seized Pannonia, and Italy was again and again overrun 
b}^ various barbarous nations. Britain and Armorica were deserted, 
and left to their own guidance ; and at last, with the abdication of 
Augustulus, the very name of Emperor of the West (which had long 
been only a name) expired; and Odoacer, the leader of the Heruli, 
assumed the title of King of Italy. 

Thus ended the Eoman empire, after a continuance of more than 
twelve hundred years, during which it had conquered and governed 
the greater part of the known world. Its decline and fall are to be 
attributed to the luxurious habits engendered by wealth, and to the 
vast extension of its dominions, which at length extinguished all 
national sentiment, and rendered the government of such various 
and widely-extended regions impossible to any except men of the 
highest order of talent. Its final dissolution occurred one hundred 
and forty-six years after the removal of the capitol to Constantinople 
(A. D. 476, U. C. 1229). 



PERSIA. 



uiwciltLriiuili i 



HISTOEY OF PERSIA BEFOEE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. . 

The records of tlie early national existence of Persia, like- those 
of most oriental countries, were nearly all swept away by the first 
flood of Mahometan barbarism. It appears to have been a matter 
of conscience with these fanatical conquerors, to devote all written 
records to destruction ; and thus the most valuable and noble monu- 
ments of history, science, and literature, have perished for ever. 
The little information which we possess, relating to ancient Persian 
history, is derived principally from the sacred writings, and from 
the accounts of early Greek historians. That singular work, the 
"Shah Nameh, or History of Kings," written mostly by the cele- 
brated poet Ferdusi, embodies a few authentic traditions, with some 
imperfect information derived from the Greeks, and a vast mass of 
impossible fable and imagination. 

It would be vain to attempt a discrimination between the true 
and fabulous portions of the native Persian chronicles anterior to 
the year B. C. 747. The tales of the Paishdadian kings, to one 
of whom, as to the "three emperors" of China, was attributed the 
invention and introduction of divers useful arts ; of Tahmuras bat- 
tling with the Deeves, or magicians; or of "E Furrookh, the 
Fortunate, " reigning gloriously for a period of five hundred years, 
can scarcely claim a place in a compend of sober history. Occa- 
, sionally, among these wild legends we may notice an incident, the 
quaintness and originality of which commend it to our minds as 
being founded upon a truthful origin. Such is the story of the 
courageous Kawah, who, although but a poor blacksmith, headed an 



184 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

insurrection against the tyrant Zoliauk; overcame him, and delivered 
the regal authority to Feridoon, afterwards surnamed "the Fortu- 
nate," a descendant of the former kings. Zohauk was a Syrian 
prince, who had invaded Persia, and possessed himself of the sov- 
ereignty. Points of identity have been suggested by some writers 
between this monarch and the Nimrod of the Hebrew scriptures. 
Kawah's leathern apron, which he hoisted as a standard in this 
warfare, was afterwards emblazoned with precious stones, and used 
as the banner of many successive kings. It was taken as a trophy 
by the Mahometans in the time of the Caliph Omar. 

The prowess and valorous deeds of Eustum, form a prominent 
theme for the fabulous tales of Persian poets and story-tellers. That 
such a person existed, and that he flourished during the reign of 
Manucheher, grandson of Feridoon, there canbe little doubt; but what 
part he actually took in the politics and warfare of his age, is at best 
but a subject of uncertain conjecture. His exploits,' as related by 
Ferdusi, rival those of Hercules. 

It can hardly be affirmed, with certainty, that Persia existed as an 
independent kingdom before the time of Sardanapalus, the last of 
the Assyrian monarchs. In the year B. C. 747, which we have 
mentioned as the earliest reliable date in Persian history, this unfor- 
tunate king, sunk in luxury and effeminacy, was overpowered and 
slain by Arbaces and Belesis, governors of Media and Babjdon, 
assisted by the forces of various other nobles who had joined in 
their conspiracy. 

Before the time of the celebrated Cyrus, Persia is said to have 
been chiefly inhabited by a pastoral and wandering people, divided 
into ten principal tribes, and owning a patriarchal government. 
This great conqueror, whose name occurs so frequently in the prophe- 
cies of Holy Writ, having, upon the union of these hitherto distinct 
hordes, obtained the chief authority, overcame the declining king- 
doms of Media and Babylon, and extended his conquests to the 
shores of the Mediterranean. These events took place between five 
and six centuries before the Christian era. 

Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who overcame Egypt, 
and possessed himself of extensive dominions in other portions of 
northern Africa. It has been conjectured by some, that this mon- 
arch was the Ahasuerus mentioned in the Jewish scriptures. 

The impostor and usurper Pseudo Smerdis, having been dethroned 
and slain in a conspiracy headed by Otanes and six other* noblemen, 



PERSIA. 135 

Darius Hystaspes, one of tlie number, obtained tlie throne. The 
conspirators had left it, as they supposed, to chance to decide which 
of them should be invested with the supreme authority ; but the 
ingeniiity of a groom of Darius secured him the advantage. 

He was the first Persian king who attempted an invasion of either 
of the European nations, and although in some measure successful, 
he thereby entailed disaster and destruction upon his successors. He 
crossed the Bosphorus with a large army, and took possession of 
Macedon, extending his power into Thrace. The Scythians had 
previously checked his advance upon their dominions northward of 
the Danube. 

Darius regulated and organized the civil government and the 
mihtary force of his dominions in a much more efficient manner 
than had been before accomplished. He instituted a regular com- 
munication with the various satrapies, in order to exercise over 
their rulers a wholesome restraint and supervision. He increased 
the power and discipline of his army by the introduction of hired 
soldiers from the Grecian states; and, upon pressing occasions, 
resorted to a system of conscription for the purpose of adding to the 
number of his troops. 

By the command of this monarch, Scylax, a Greek navigator, 
undertook his celebrated voyage from the eastern border of Persia 
to Egypt. This was a more extensive and adventurous undertaking 
than might at first be supposed ; no similar attempt having been 
previously made, so far as we have any information. Of the diffi- 
culties and delays which were encountered in its accomplishment, 
we may judge from the fact, that the voyage occupied between two 
and three years. The expedition was fitted out at Caspatyra, a town 
five or six hundred miles from the mouth of the Indus. 

A successful invasion of several Indian provinces was the result 
of the information obtained by Darius from those to whom he had 
entrusted this adventure. 

Towards the end of this reign, the prevailing success of the 
Persian arms met with several checks and reverses. Insurrections 
broke out in Egypt, and among the Grecian inhabitants of Asia 
Minor. His success in suppressing the revolt in the latter, encour- 
aged Darius to undertake the subjection of the allies of his rebellious 
subjects across the Hellespont. With a great force, his son-in-law 
Mardonius entered Macedonia, and obtained complete possession of 
that province and of several others upon its border; but disaster at 



156 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

sea, and a destructive attack by the Thracians detracted from the 
renown and advantage of the expedition. A second attempt upon 
Athens, resulted in a total defeat of the Persian forces by the Athe- 
nians under the command of the famous Miltiades, upon the plains 
of Marathon. This engagement, than which none in the annals of 
warfare has been more universally celebrated, occurred on the 29th 
day of September (B. C. 490). 

In the midst of immense preparation to repair the losses and dis- 
honour thus incurred, the crown devolved upon Xerxes I. by the 
death of his father, in the year B. C. 485. Upon a comparison of 
the writings of Josephus with the records of the Old Testament, it 
would seem that Darius was the king by whose protection and 
favour Jerusalem was rebuilt, and the implements of sacred cere- 
monies restored to the temple. During his reign, flourished ZOroas. 
ter, the great philosopher and theologian of Persia, who inculcated 
the worship of fire. Some have maintained that Zoroaster was but 
a title assumed by successive legislators, and others that there were 
two of that name. Whether these suppositions are true or false, 
no accurate record enables us to decide. It is singular that none of 
the Greek historians mention the name of Zoroaster, nor do they 
describe any other individual, whose acts or reputation would seem 
to identify the same historical character. 

In the native Persian histories, we notice equally surprising 
omissions of heroes and conquerors, with whose names, from other 
records, we are exceedingly familiar. 

Of Xerxes I., whose memorable expedition and disgraceful defeat, 
have been so minutely described by Herodotus, no mention is made 
in any of the chronicles of Persia; the dominion of his father, by 
them styled Gushtasp, being represented as occupying about the 
space of time included in the reigns of both. 

The first military operation of Xerxes was to quell the revolt in 
his Egyptian dominions. In this he was completely successful, his 
forces under his brother Achaemenes overrunning the country, and 
completely subjugating the native inhabitants. 

After this, followed a three years' preparation for a campaign in 
Greece, which should atone for former injuries, and wipe away the 
disgrace of the Persian arms in the preceding reign. 

The whole body finally set in motion for the subjugation of that 
little state, including women, sutlers, and servants of the camp, was 
estimated by the most reliable Greek authors at more than two 



PEESIA. 



187 



millions of souls. Eiglity thousand of tliese were mounted troops: 
an immense train of camels and chariots accompanied them, and the 
flotilla provided for their transportation across the Hellespont and 
to cooperate at sea with the manoeuvres of the land forces, is said to 
have been composed of three thousand vessels. The conflicting 
emotions which agitated the mind of the haughty monarch, on 
reviewing the whole of his vast armament from a height by the sea- 
shore, have formed a subject for remark by historians of all ages. 

The entire force passed into Thrace, crossing the Hellespont by 
means of a bridge of boats, and met with little resistance from the 
inhabitants of that country. Several years are said to have been 
spent in further fruitless preparations; but when, at last, the 
invading army, in numbers apparently sufficient to bear down all 
opposition, poured into Grreece, it was only to meet with the most 
determined resistance, and to sustain the most disgraceful overthrow 
and defeat. 

The glorious self-devotion of Leonidas and his little band of 
Spartan warriors, at the pass of Thermopylae, opposed the first check 
to the advance of the Persians; and, crushed as they were by the 
overwhelming force of the enemy, their dauntless courage and 
patriotism aroused a flame in the hearts of their coutrymen, which 
resulted in the complete destruction of the invaders at Salamis, 
Platsea, and Mycale. 

The Persian monarch made his escape, slenderly attended, in a 
solitary fishing boat. Of the events of his reign consequent upon 
his return to his own dominions, we have but little and uncertain 
information. He was assassinated by Artabanes, a captain of the 
guards, in the twelfth, or, according to some chronologers, the twenty- 
first year of his reign. 

Ardeshir Dirazdusht, known by historians as Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus, (the long-handed,) succeeded his father Xerxes on the 
Persian throne. He reigned for forty years, and was considered a 
wise and virtuous prince; but his reign was troubled by various 
insurrections and disturbances, which resulted in the loss of the 
Greek provinces in Asia Minor. In the south and east his aiithority 
appears to have been maintained and extended. 

The accounts given of several succeeding monarchs are in the 
highest degree imperfect and uncertain. The Persian historians 
cover the space of time intervening between the reign of Artaxerxes 
Longimanus and that of Darab H., who corresponds to Darius 



188 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Codomanus, by lengthening that of the former sovereign to an 
incredible period, and by adding an account of a certain queen and 
her son, Darab the First. 

Of various occurrences in the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, who 
is considered to have been the third monarch after Longimanus, we 
have the most minute and highly interesting description from the 
pen of the renowned soldier and historian Xenophon. This monarch 
came to the throme in the year B. C. 405.' The peace of his reign 
was disturbed by the opposition of his brother, the celebrated 
Younger Cyrus, who aspired to the crown. The party of Cyrus was 
favoured by his mother, the former queen ; and, having prepared an 
army of more than an hundred thousand men, consisting in part of 
hired Grecian soldiers, he marched upon Susa to enforce his claims. 
Being immensely outnumbered by his opponents, he sustained a 
total defeat: he was slain by the hand of his brother, and his army 
was destroyed or dispersed. The Greek mercenaries maintained 
their ground with the utmost valour and determination, refusing to 
lay down their arms even after the destruction of their leader and 
their allies. Their own chiefs were induced by a pretended truce to 
put themselves into the enemies' power, and were basely and perfidi- 
ously assassinated. In this emergency, they appointed Xenophon to 
the chief command, and took council as to the course which they 
should adopt. It was finally determined to attempt a retreat through 
the enemies' country. 

The number of Greeks who survived the battle, was about ten 
thousand, all foot soldiers. Their only route to a place of safety 
was across a country whose natural obstacles seemed insurmount- 
able : they must force their way, pressed on every side by the enemy, 
over rough mountains, across dangerous rivers, and through inhos- 
pitable deserts. The distance to be thus traversed was nearly two 
thousand miles ; and as they were unprovided with provisions, it was 
impossible that the journey should be other than a continual warfare 
to obtain sustenance, even should their march be uninterrupted by the 
regular forces of the Persians. With such prospects before them, 
the terrors of which were more than realized, the Grecians com- 
menced their retreat. 

It was nearly a year before they reached Byzantium, now Constan- 
tinople, and the record of their sufferings, dangers, and exposure, 
supported with unequalled courage and fortitude, has been fully 
handed down to us by Xenophon, their leader and historian. They 



PEESIA. IQQ \ 

were blinded and impeded by deep snows, especially among tbe moun- | 
tainous regions of Armenia ; numbers perished from cold and hunger ; \ 
hordes of barbarous troops pressed upon their rear or lay in wait ; 
to intercept their progress ; and their baggage and stores, if delayed j 
by the impracticable roads, were sure to be seized and plundered. j 

The preservation of the whole corps from destruction appears to i 
have been due, in no small measure, to the skill, bravery, and i 
craftiness of their leader. The variety and interest of the narrative j 
enchain our attention throughout the whole of this unparalleled ! 
expedition. It presents striking pictures of manners and habits 
among the various nations through which they forced their way ; 
the subterraneous abodes of the Armenian peasantry, and the despe- 
rately defended strongholds of the Taochians, are brought vividly 
before our minds. 

When the foremost of the Grecian band first obtained a sight of 
the sea, from the summit of a mountain, their shouts brought 
forward the whole army, in a state of tumultuous joy and exultation. 
Although on the extreme eastern shore of the Pontus Euxinus, or 
Black Sea, and at a vast distance from their homes, they felt that 
the way was now plain before them. The number who perished on 
the route, considering the difficulties encountered, and the protracted 
warfare and exposure, was astonishingly small, being less than fifteen 
hundred. 

The remaining years of Artaxerxes Mnemon were disturbed by 
court conspiracies, and by invasions of the Greeks of Asia Minor 
and their Spartan allies. - 

His youngest son Ochus assumed the regal authority in the year 
360 B. C. under the title of Artaxerxes III. To obtain and secure 
this position, he put to death his brother and a great number of 
other relatives, whose rivalry he feared. The arms of this monarch 
were successful in quelling a revolt in Phoenicia, and in recovering 
the Egyptian provinces. This last achievement was not accom- 
plished without great loss, owing to the dangerous and unknown 
character of the country through which the army was obliged to pass. 

An Egyptian eunuch named Bagoas, who had been invested with 
high authority by Ochus, in revenge for the injuries inflicted upon 
his country, laid a plot against the life of his master, who perished 
by poison. 

Darius Codomanus, styled Darab II. by Persian chroniclers, next 
succeeded to the throne, being aided in establishing his authority by 



190 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the same eunuch who had murdered his predecessor, and who hoped 
thereby to retain his own influence and authority. Finding the new 
monarch httle inclined to submit to his dictation, Bagoas endeav- 
oured to remove him in a similar manner; biit, being discovered, 
was himself compelled to swallow the deadly draught which he had 
prepared for his master. 

Two years from the time when Darius Codomanus ascended the 
throne, his kingdom was invaded by Alexander, son of Philip of 
Macedon. Philip had been previously worsted in a contest with 
Persia, and a desire to avenge this disaster, combined with hopes of 
plunder and a thirst for military renown, induced Alexander to 
resolve on an expedition into the heart of Asia. In the year 334 
B. C, with an army of only thirty -five thousand men, five thousand 
of whom were cavalry from his northern provinces, he crossed the 
Hellespont. After visiting the plains of ancient Troy, and making 
offerings to the shade of his pretended ancestor, Achilles, he marched 
to the banks of the Granicus, on the opposite side of which the 
Persian army was encamped in great force. Darius had not been 
remiss in preparations to resist the invader : he had sent an immense 
army into Asia Minor, and with a further force awaited the enemies' 
approach in Syria. 

At the Granicus, the Greeks, encouraged by the presence and" 
personal valour of their general, forced a passage against over- 
whelming odds, and routed the Persians with great slaughter. 
Their own loss was trifling. Alexander pushed on to meet Darius 
and his reserved forces, whom he encountered near the borders of 
Syria, by the gulf of Issus. A terrible battle ensued, which resulted 
in the complete overthrow of the Persian army, one hundred thou- 
sand of whom were slain ; and the wife and daughter of the defeated 
prince, with much rich and valuable booty, fell into the hands of the 
victors. The Macedonians are said to have lost in this engagement 
only three hundred men, a disproportion so incredible, when com- 
pared with the destruction of the Persians, as only to be explained 
on the supposition that the army of Darius, being sp dily disorgan- 
ized and put to rout, were slain as unresisting fugitives by their 
fierce and disciplined assailants. The royal captives were treated 
by Alexander with the greatest consideration and respect. 

Phoenicia and the sea-ports of Tyre and Sidon fell successively 
into the power of the conqueror, the resistance of the Tyrians being- 
punished by the sale of thirty thousand captives as slaves. Proceed- 



PEESIA. 



191 



ing against Jerusalem, it is said that Alexander spared tlie city on 
account of the veneration excited in his mind by the insignia and 
solemnity of the Jewish religious rites. It is added, by some writer, 
that he sacrificed in the temple, and that the high-priest called his 
attention to the prophecy that the "king of Grecia should overcome 
the king of Persia." 

Egypt, which was the next scene of his warlike operations, offered 
little resistance to the successfid Greeks. From this easy conquest, 
Alexander proceeded, with renewed vigour, to carry out the pur- 
poses for which he had commenced the Asiatic campaign. The 
Persian army, to the number of about a million of men, awaited the 
invader near the Assyrian town of Arbela. The discipline and 
valour of the Greeks again prevailed, and by this final and decisive 
conflict the power of Alexander was established and confirmed 
through the greater part of eastern Asia. Darius fled from the field 
of battle, and sought an asylum in Ecbatana. Before, however, he 
had opportunity to reassemble his remaining forces, or to arrange any 
further plans for defence, he was seized by Bessus, the treacherous 
governor of Bactriana, and basely murdered. 

The native historians of Persia give a different account of the 
circumstances attending the death of Darius, and mingle much of 
fanciful invention in their detail of the Grecian invasion. They 
endeavour to prove that Alexander wa,s a son of Darab the First, 
whom they represent to have married a daughter of Philip of 
Macedon ; a story, the absurdity of which carries its own refutation. 

The subsequent career of Alexander forms rather a portion of 
Greek than of Persian history. He died at Babylon, in consequence 
of a protracted debauch, eleven years from the time of his entry 
into Asia; leaving the country a prey to the fierce and rapacious 
military chieftains whom he had set over the various provinces. 
About sixteen years firom the time of his death, which took place 
B. C. 323, Seleucus, a general of great wisdom, courage, and activity, 
obtained secure possession of most of the country now known as 
Persia. His dominions were aft;erwards greatly extended, including 
the larger pai if Alexander's conquests west of the Indus. The 
long line of his successors, twenty-one in number, entitled the 
Seleucidge, retained regal authority in Persia until the establishment 
of the Parthian dynasty ; and in Syria until the Eoman conquest 
under Pompey, B. C. 65. 

In the year 250 B. C, Arsaces, a nobleman of Parthia, in revenge 



X92 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

for some domestic injuries received from tlie provincial governor, 
headed a successful insurrection, and laid tlie foundation of the 
Parthian power in Persia. 

The Parthians were a brave and warlike people, who had origin- 
ally emigrated from Scythia and the adjacent regions, and had 
greatly increased in power and number. The bounds of the country 
where they had settled, do not appear to be very distinctly defined ; 
and after they had obtained control of Persia, they became so 
mingled with the native inhabitants, that no distinction could be 
drawn between the two races. Parthian and Persian are convertible 
terms with the Eoman writers of this period. 

The Arsacidise, or descendants of Arsaces, reigned with great power 
and splendour more than four hundred years ; but for the history of 
their achievements, we are obliged to depend entirely upon the 
writers of other and distant nations. The native chronicles contain 
scarcely any thing reliable concerning the events which transpired 
in this long and important interval — the most brilliant period in 
Persian history. 

The classical reader will readily call to mind the exultation of the 
Latin poets at any advantages gained by Eoman arms over these 
formidable enemies. The memorable defeat of Crassus in Mesopo- 
tamia, which took place B. C. 53, during the reign of Orodes, the 
eleventh of the Arsacidae; the check received from Antony's gen- 
eral, Ventidius ; and Antony's own discomfiture and forced retreat, 
are matters familiar to those acquainted with the history of the two 
great Eoman triumvirates. Thirty-six years before the Christian 
era, Augustus so far extended his power and influence in the East, 
that Phraates, then king of Persia, or Parthia, restored the trophies 
of victory previously obtained upon the occasion of the memorable 
defeat of Crassus. 



PEKSIA. ]^93 

FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE CONQUEST BY ZINGHIS KHAN. 

A STRONG contrast appears between tlie effeminate and inefficient 
population whose countless forces, in a former reign, a handful of 
resolute men could disperse and destroy, and tlie warlike tribes who 
now held undisturbed sway in Persia. The government was essen- 
tially military, resembling, in no small degree, that of Western 
Europe during the middle ages. 

The native inhabitants, completely degraded and enslaved, no 
longer retained even the semblance of influence or authority, while 
their Parthian masters, organized as a powerful military confederacy, 
spread the terror of their arms far and v,dde. Their mode of war- 
fare was similar to that of the knights of Europe; the force upon 
which they chiefly depended consisting of mounted men, clad in 
defensive armour. The strength and speed of their horses, and their 
skill in the use of the bow, were matters of world-wide celebrity. 

The period at which the Parthian power appears to have attained 
its greatest height, was during the reign of Mithridates I., the sixth 
monarch of the Arsacidse. He subdued Syria, and placed rulers, 
from his own family, over Armenia, the semi-barbarous districts of 
Scythia, and some portions of India. - 

The fall of the long and glorious dynasty founded by Arsaces, 
resulted from a rebellion excited by Ardeshir Babegan ; alleged to 
have been a descendant of the ancient royal line of Xerxes, or 
Isfundear, as he is called by Persian historians. Supported by the 
nobles of Ears, a province on the Persian Gulf, he made war 
against Artabanes IV., then monarch of Persia, and, after a suc- 
cession of engagements, defeated and slew him. 

Thus terminated the line of the Arsacidse. It is true that several 
princes, deriving their authority or descent from the same source, 
retained their power for a considerable period after this event. The 
kings of Armenia maintained an independent government until the 
year A. D. 428 ; and, as we shall see hereafter, their descendants 
finally obtained the throne of Persia. They are remarkable as 
having been the first monarchs who embraced Christianity. 
13 



194 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

Ardeshir reigned fourteen years, during whicli time, by policy 
and conquest, lie greatly strengthened and enlarged the empire. 
Under the last of the Arsacidse, the power of the monarchy had 
become enfeebled, and the various provinces no longer felt the con- 
trolling influence of a powerful central authority ; but the founder 
of the new dynasty conciliated or overcame their opposition, and, 
by a wise and firm administration, left the empire entire to his 
successors. He exhibited great zeal in the restoration of the 
religion which had been established in Persia before the Parthian 
conquest — a piece of policy which gained him the good-will of the 
native inhabitants. 

According to the Persian genealogy, Ardeshir Babegan was 
■ descended from Sassan, a grandson of Isfundear; and his descend- 
ants, who occiipied the throne until near the middle of the seventh 
century, are termed Sassanians. 

Upon the death of Ardeshir, his son Shapoor, or Sapores, 
succeeded to the throne. Concerning the character of this prince, 
we have the most contradictory accounts : the native historians 
represent him as a sagaciouS; just, and virtuous ruler, Avhile those 
of Europe condemn him for cruelty, barbarity, and insolence. His 
reign is celebrated for successful military operations against the 
Eoman Asiatic provinces. The aged Emperor Valerian, attempting 
to make head against the Persian invasion, was taken prisoner at 
Edessa, and held in captivity till his death. It is reported, though 
with doubtful authenticity, that the victor heaped every species of 
contumely and disgrace upon his royal and venerable captive, and 
that he finally pxit him to death with the most refined cruelty This 
tradition comes to us, however, from historians whose country had 
felt the force of the Persian arms, and who can hardly be considered 
as candid reporters of the character and acts of a hostile and suc- 
cessful monarch. 

Hoormuz or Hormisdas, a son of Sapores, was the next in suc- 
cession. Of this prince, Persian historians relate that, to allay 
certain suspicions as to his good faith, which had been excited in 
the mind of his father, he cut off his right hand, and sent it as a 
pledge of fidelity. 

During the reigns of the Sassanides, the nation was involved in 
almost perpetual hostilities with the Eomans, in which the Persian 
arms in many instances met with brilliant success. 

The seventh monarch of this line, Narsi, defeated Galerius on the 



PEESIA. 



195 



same spot where the army of Crassus had been routed in a former 
reign. 

Shapoor Zoolactaf was contemporary with Constantine. He 
reigned seventy years, and maintained his ground with great ability 
against the force of the Roman arms. 

Baharam Gour, styled by Greek authorities Varanes Y., is cele- 
brated in Persian chronicles for his private virtues, simple tastes, 
and fatherly care of his people. He perished in a marsh, while 
hunting, A. D. 438. 

In the time of the Emperor Justinian, Persia was ruled by a 
monarch whom the historians of his country have ever delighted 
to honour. Khosru Nushirwan obtained the sceptre in the year 531, 
and reigned nearly fifty years in great splendour. He is alike cele- 
brated for the success of his military schemes, and for the justice 
and vigilance of his government. 

He suppressed the dissolute sect founded by Mazdac, gave great 
attention to public works, and founded institutions for learning. By 
his own efforts, and by the assistance of his noted minister Abuzoor- 
gamihr, the various departments of government were so regulated 
and systematized, that every abuse or unfaithfulness on the part of 
inferior and provincial officers could be discovered and corrected. 
He took possession of all Syria, and compelled the Emperor Jus- 
tinian to a disgraceful treaty of peace, extorting from him the 
payment of a heavy tribute. At no period was the Sassanian power 
so great, or the nation which it ruled so prosperous, as under this 
celebrated sovereign. 

His son, Hoormuz III., succeeded him on the throne; a prince 
incapacitated by his vices and weakness to perpetuate the glory of 
the preceding reign. Pie was slain, after a short period of revolt 
and mismanagement, by his own general, Baharam Choubeen, whose 
distinguished services he had repaid by injury and ingratitude. 
Baharam endeavoured to take possession of the vacant throne, but 
on account of the intervention of the Eoman emperor Maurice, was 
unable to compass his ends, and Khosru Parviz, a son of Hoormuz, 
was made king. 

His reign was marked by a long course of almost unprecedented 
success, and by a final downfall, as complete and unexpected. Per- 
sonally, he was no warrior, but abandoned himself to the most 
extravagant luxury and magnificence. The splendour of his palaces, 
his horses, his elephants, and the beauty of his mistresses, are 



196 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

fruitful subjects for the tales of Persian poets. His first military 
campaign was against Syria, whicli he invaded under the pretence 
of a desire to punish the assassins of his patron Maurice. The 
whole country was devastated; Jerusalem was taken, and its 
splendid shrines and churches demolished; what had been reli- 
giously preserved as the true cross was carried away; most of the 
cities were plundered, and nearly one hundred thousand Christians 
were put to death. 

From Syria, the armies of Khosru forced their way into Egypt, 
and overran the whole country, from the mouth of the Nile to the 
borders of Ethiopia. Alexandria was taken, and the Persian forces 
extended their march through Libya, even as far as Tripoli. 

A like success attended an expedition into the western part of 
Asia Minor. It is said that an encampment was maintained for a 
period of ten years, in the immediate vicinity of Constantinople. The 
island of Ehodes, and various cities on the coast, fell into the power 
of the Persians. 

After thirty years of success and conquest, the dominions of 
Khosru were invaded by a Eoman army under the Emperor Hera- 
clius, and a continued succession of reverses and defeats left the 
Persian monarch in a helpless and hopeless condition. Influenced 
by his natural obstinacy, he persisted, to the last, in refusing all 
terms of capitulation. 

He was at length seized and imprisoned by his eldest son, Siroes, 
who, assisted by a portion of the people, had rebelled against the 
paternal authority. This unnatural son consummated his barbarity 
hj the murder of his father and brothers. 

From this time to the accession of the last king of the dynasty 
of Sassan, few important events fall under our notice. Yezdegird, 
or Isdigertes III., at whose death terminated the long line of the 
Sassanides, commenced his reign A. D, 632. At this time the 
followers of the Arabian prophet Mahomet, had fully entered upon 
that system of invasion and forcible conversion to their faith which, 
in so brief a period, overthrew the religion and modified the gov- 
ernment of most of the Eastern nations. A particular history of 
the rise and progress of Mahometanism will be found in another por- 
tion of this volume; the present remarks will be confined to its 
introduction into the empire of Persia. 

Mahomet was born in the year 569, during the reign of Nushirwan. 
His first communication with Persia was in the time of Khosrn 



PEKSIA, 



197 



Parvis, to whom lie sent a letter, announcing himself as a prophet, 
and enjoining the reception of his doctrines. The proposition was 
received with the utmost contempt, the letter being torn in pieces by 
the emperor, and the fragments thrown into the river Karasu. The 
Mahometans declare that, from the time of this impious act, the 
stream has never, as before, been serviceable in fertilizing the 
country, but has been confined in a deep channel within its banks. 

The result of the first attempt made in Persia by the Arabs, for 
the promulgation of the new religion, was unpromising. The fol- 
lowers of the prophet gained no substantial advantage, nor any 
permanent establishment in the country, until the sixth year of the 
reign of Yezdegird. Then occurred the terrible battle of Kadesia, 
in which the Arabian forces gained an entire victory, and obtained 
possession of the sacred apron of the blacksmith Kawah, covered 
with jewels, and long used as the royal standard. One hundred 
thousand Persians were slain, and the plunder obtained by this 
victory surpassed the wildest dreams of the rude and ignorant con- 
querors. We can hardly conceive of the astonishment and exultation 
of these roving tribes, whose lives had been passed without super- 
fluity, nourished by the simplest food, and unacquainted with the 
refinements of civilization, on seeing at their disposal the treasures 
of a luxurious and magnificent camp and court. The booty obtained 
from the wealthy capital Madayn, which was afterwards taken and 
pillaged, completed their acquisitions. 

At the battle of Nehavend, the Persian power was finally over- 
thrown, and the unhappy monarch only escaped with life. For a 
number of years, he wandered from place to place in search of an 
asjdum, and was finally murdered by a miller Avhom he had hired to 
conceal him. 

With the fall of the Sassanides, ended the ancient system of 
religion. The doctrines of Zoroaster and the Magi were compelled 
to give place to those of the invaders, and the sacred writings and 
historical records of the country were unsparingly destroyed. 

For two hundred years, Persia remained but a province under the 
caliphs, who, by their emissaries and governors, colonized, controlled, 
and tyrannized according to their pleasure. At the end of this 
period, the fiery zeal for the new religion having somewhat abated, 
discontent and a spirit of rebellion began to pervade the countrv. 

Jacob Ibn Leith, a robber chieftain of the province of Seistan, 
having been first employed in the service of the Mahometan com- 



J^98 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. 

mander, attempted to gain for himself the siipreme anthority, and 
actually became ruler over most of the Eastern provinces of Persia. 
He Avas of low origin, but possessed of a daring, gallant, and enter- 
prising spirit, which secured to him the admiration and attachment 
of his followers. 

On his death, in the year A. D. 877, his possessions devolved upon 
his brother Amer, a man of luxurious habits, and ill-calculated to 
maintain authority in times of disturbance and anarchy. His policy 
was to conciliate the good-will of the caliph by an agreement to 
govern in his name. For this purpose he despatched a letter to 
Bagdad, which was favourably received, and" a friendly relation 
was, in this manner, maintained between the two powers for 
several years. 

A rupture finally occurred, and Motahmed, then caliph, obtained 
the assistance of Ishmael Samani, a Tartar chieftain, in the reduction 
of his refractory subject. On the northern side of the Oxus or 
Jihon, Amer was entirely defeated by the Tartar troops, and was 
sent a prisoner to the caliph. In this engagement, the Persians 
outnumbered their adversaries in the proportion of more than three 
to one, but they were unable to sustain the impetuous attack of the 
hardy and fierce barbarians. 

Only two other princes of the family of Jacob Ibn Leith 
maintained even the semblance of authority in Persia. 

From this period until the rise of the celebrated Mahmoud of 
Ghizni, in the early part of the eleventh century, the northern and 
eastern portions of Persia, including the possessions across the 
Oxus, were under the dominion of the dynasty of Samani ; and the 
southern and western provinces were governed by the Dilemee. 
Ishmael Samani, who overthrew Amer, and was the first of his name 
who reigned in Persia, is said to have been a descendant of Baha- 
ram Choubeen, celebrated in the reign of the immediate descendants 
of Nushirwan. 

He was the most famous monarch of his line, being no less 
remarkable for his military talents, than for his encouragement of 
literature, and for his private virtues. 

The monarchy of the Dilemee originated with the family of an 
obscure fisherman of the village of Dilem. They claimed an uncer- 
tain descent from the ancient Persian kings, but the secret of their 
success lay in their own enterprising ambition, stimulated by the 
predictions of an astrologer. 



PEKSIA. 199 

While Persia, thus divided, was under the control of these two 
houses, a power had arisen in the East, which was destined to over- 
whelm them both. A small principality in Afghanistan, founded 
by a rebellious subject of the Saman dynasty, had increased, by 
conquests in Northern India, until it became a formidable power. 

Ghizni, or Gazna, was the capital of this province, from which 
city the dynasty of the Ghiznivide princes derive their title. 

Subuktagi, prince of this district, after having repeatedly defeated 
Jypaul, king of JSTorthern India, reducing him to the situation of a 
tributary, and immensely extending his own dominions, died in the 
year A. D. 977, leaving the crown to his son Mahmoud. Of the 
numberless victories and vast undertakings of this latter monarch 
we can here give but a very brief synopsis. By treaties, alliances, and 
the terror of his arms, he acquired supreme power over the terri- 
tories of the Saman and Dilem kingdoms; but his more celebrated 
campaigns were in Hindostan. Some account of the expeditions 
into this country will be found in another part of this volume, 
under the title of India. Filled with the most extravagant zeal for 
his religion, Mahmoud was continually engaged in crusades against 
the temples and' cities especially consecrated to Hindoo idolatry. 
His great object seemed to be the seizure and destruction of the 
most venerated idols; and to accomplish this, he undertook the 
most distant and dangerous expeditions. Doubtless a desire to 
extend the religion of the prophet was used in some measure as a 
cloak for his personal ambition; and the incredible amount of 
treasure possessed by the Indian kings and priesthood aroused to its 
fullest extent the eagerness and rapacity of the monarch and his 
troops. The royal palace at Ghizni was resplendent with gold and 
jewels, collected in the Indian campaigns, and with broken frag- 
ments of idols, brought home as the most glorious trophies of 
success. The weight of precious metals, and the number and 
quality of valuable gems in Mahmoud's possession, as recorded by 
historians, surpass any thing in the annals of regal magnificence. 
The grand mosque, no less than the imperial palace, was the admi- 
ration of the world, for the imposing style of its architecture and 
the richness of its decorations. 

The description given by Persian historians of Mahmoud's expe- 
dition into Guzerat, for the purpose of destroying the great idol of 
Sumnaut, seems like a legend of romance. The huge image was 
filled with jewels and treasure, and by its destruction Mahmoud 



200 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



obtained a far greater amount of booty than the ransom offered by 
the priests as an inducement to spare it. The conqueror appears to 
have had no suspicion of the real cause of their eagerness to save 
the idol, and his rejection of their proposals is considered by the 
faithful as a glorious manifestation of religious zeal and pious self- 
denial, appropriately rewarded. 

Mahmoud was succeeded by his son Musaood, whose reign was 
spent in vain struggles to maintain the integrity of the vast empire 
bequeathed to him by his father. While engaged in subduing 
revolts in the East, his western provinces Avere attacked by the 
Seljuk Turks, who in the next reign extended their power through- 
out Persia. 

This tribe, which had formed a settlement in Bokhara, across the 
Oxus, and afterwards in the central Persian province of Khorasan, 
was now rapidly increasing in power. The chief, Togrul Beg, took 
upon himself a royal title in the year 1042, and so rapidly extended 
his conquests and acquisitions, that, after overrunning all Persia, he 
took the city of Bagdad, and made the caliph a prisoner. The 
august captive was treated with reverence and respect, and the 
victor, by treaty, agreed to hold his acquisitions as the nominal 
viceroy of the unfortunate monarch. 

Alp Arslan, a son of Togrul Beg, who reigned next in succession, 
was noted as a brave leader and a generous enemy. He left the 
crown to his son Malek Shah, a monarch equally celebrated for his 
extensive conquests, and for the wisdom with which he administered 
the affairs of government. In the height of his prosperity, his 
power extended from the borders of China to the uninhabitable 
deserts of Africa. He subdued Syria and Egypt; the wilds of 
Tartary formed a portion of his vast dominions; Georgia and 
Bokhara submitted to his authority; yet his unceasing vigilance 
proved adequate to the government and control of this vast assem- 
blage of nations, differing so widely in language, character, and 
habits. He traversed this extensive empire many times in person, 
for the purpose of correcting abuses and ascertaining the true con- 
dition of his subjects. He gave great encouragement to learning 
and science, and expended large sums in public improvements. 

After the death of Malek, the empire was distracted for many 
years by the contests of his sons for the sovereignty. The sceptre 
was finally obtained by Sanjar, who had maintained separate con- 
trol over Khorasan and Transoxiana from the time of his father's 



PERSIA. 201 

death. His reign was disturbed by a war with the Turkomans of 
Guz, by whom he was at one time taken prisoner, and held in long 
captivity. 

Little of interest attaches to the history of the few succeeding 
Seljuk kings, or to the detail of civil commotions under the sway 
of the minor princes, styled Attabegs, who ruled over the country 
for about a century after their fall. 

During this interval of misrule and confusion, a sect sprung up 
whose name was, for more than a century, a terror to western Asia. 
It was founded by Hussun Subah, or Sheik ul Gebel, called by 
Europeans the Old Man of the Mountain, and King of the Assassins. 
He was an Arabian of obscure origin, but, by intrigue, and a 
remarkable faculty for arousing the blind and superstitious zeal of 
his followers, finally secured the services of such a band of des- 
perate ruffians, that none, even in the highest stations, were safe 
when he had once marked them for destruction. Many strange and 
romantic tales are told of the secret manoeuvres of this dangerous 
confederacy, and of the bloody tragedies enacted in furtherance of 
their designs. 

The sect was finally annihilated upon the conquest of Persia by 
the Mongols under Zinghis Khan and his successors. 



uXiiiiirioiiil, itiio 



FROM THE INVASION OF PERSIA BY ZINGHIS KHAN TO THE 

PRESENT TIME. 

Such a system of wholesale destruction as was pursued by this 
celebrated Tartar conqueror, and such scenes of devastation as were 
presented in the countries which had been ravaged by his arms, can 
find no counterpart in the history of the world. Persia, torn by civil 
dissensions and anarchy, offered itself an easy prey to the terrible 
invader. He overran and laid waste its fairest provinces; but it 
was reserved for his grandson and successor, Hulagou, to complete 
its subjection, and reduce it under an estabhshed authority. 



202 



THE PEOrLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



This latter monarch, having overcome all resistance to his power 
in Persia, made some amends for the ruin and devastation caused 
by himself and his predecessor, by the encouragement of learning 
and philosophy. Few of the descendants of Zinghis, who success- 
ively filled the Persian throne, have been celebrated either for 
military distinction or skill in government, and the latter years of 
the dynasty were marked by sanguinary domestic contests. 

The next important event in Persian history is the rise of the 
great conqueror Timur, or Tamerlane, a descendant of Karachar 
Nevian, an officer in the court of Zagatai, son of Zinghis Khan. In 
a more remote degree, he laid claim to a descent from the same 
ancestry with Zinghis himself. Having succeeded to the princi- 
pality of Kesh, he commenced a career of conquest and invasion as 
brilliant and as destructive as that of any of his predecessors. His 
first remarkable camj^aign, which secured him the favour and affec- 
tion of his people, resulted in the expulsion of Tuglick . Timour, 
king of Cashgar, who had successfully invaded the country, and 
reduced many of the less powerful princes to subjection. 

Tamerlane appears to have possessed every quality calculated to 
inspire admiration loyalty, and personal attachment in the minds of 
the barbarous and warlike hordes who thronged under his banners. 
Condescending and affable to his companions in arms, utterlj^ 
ruthless and unsparing towards his enemies, and possessed of a 
perseverance and energy which no danger or difficulty could appal, 
he pressed on fi^om conquest to conquest. All Tartary submitted to 
his arms; Persia, Asia Minor, and Georgia, were reduced and plun- 
dered. Apparently for the mere sake of victory and booty, he 
poured the torrent of his armies into India, and, after laying waste 
an immense tract of country, retired, careless of securing any further 
advantages from the campaign. The immense resources and power- 
ful military organization of the Ottoman empire in the East, proved 
insufficient to resist the impetiious attack and untiring perseverance 
of the Tartar invader. Bajazet, the reigning monarch, was taken 
prisoner, and, according to some authorities, personally subjected to 
cruel indignities. 

In Persia, province after province fell into the hands of the con- 
queror. Such as opposed any resistance to his arms, were laid waste 
and plundered; and any symptoms of disafiection or revolt, in those 
over which he had extended his power, served but as a pretext for 
delivering up the country to slaughter and devastation. The towns 



PEKSIA. 



203 



and strong places of the devoted districts were plundered and razed, 
and the inhabitants butchered or sold into slaverj^ The mind turns 
with disgust and weariness from the contemplation of the succession 
of horrors which accompanied the campaigns of the Tartar khans. 

A battle is fought; the opposing army is annihilated or dispersed, 
and an innumerable horde of wild and fierce barbarians is turned 
loose upon the defenceless inhabitants to slay or pillage at their will. 
A fertile and highly cultivated country, enriched with all the pro- 
ducts of industry and art, is left a waste of smoking ruins. 

Let the scene be enacted and repeated an hundred times, and we 
may form some idea of the progress and consequences of the wars 
waged by Zinghis and Timur. The bodily strength and endurance 
of their followers was beyond aught that we can conceive. They 
were ready for a desperate engagement after a forced march of 
double the distance that could be accomplished by any modern 
army without refreshment. A remarkable instance of this hardi- 
hood was displayed by the troops of Timur at the taking of 
Bagdad. On this occasion they forded the Tigris immediately upon 
their arrival at its banks, after an uninterrupted march of nearly 
eighty miles ; nor did this exposure and fatigue appear to diminish 
the ardour or ferocity of their attack. The city was taken by 
storm, and the fugitive sultan and his troops were p^^rsued beyond 
the Euphrates. 

After the death of Timur, in the year A. D. 1405, a contest for 
the sovereignty arose between two of his grandsons, and terminated 
in the death of both the contending parties. The sceptre then 
devolved upon his youngest son. Shah Mirzah, who had been viceroy 
over Khorasan during the life of his father. This prince wisely 
employed his power and resources in restoring the prosperity and 
rebuilding the cities of the countries ravaged by his ancestors. 

The successors of Timur gradually lost possession of various 
portions of the vast domains obtained by such reckless expenditure 
of life ; and the kingdom finally became divided into three separate 
principalities. 

Little of interest or celebrity appears in Persian history, from this 
time to the rise of Ismael Sufifee, in the beginning of the sixteenth 
century. He was the first native monarch established upon the 
Persian throne since their power was effectually broken by foreign 
invasion. Of comparatively humble origin — being a descendant of 
Sheik Suffee u Dien, an anchorite of great sanctity, who lived at 



204 TH^ PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Ardebil — lie rose step by step, until his autliority became supreme 
in Persia. It is said that Ismael owed his success in no small degree 
to the veneration and gratitude inspired by one of his pious ances- 
tors, who had used his influence with Timur in behalf of certain 
Turkish captives. The descendants of the prisoners freed by the 
intercession of the holy man were not forgetful of their obligations, 
and lent their assistance and support to his posterity. 

The Sultan Selim attacked and defeated Ismael in a pitched 
battle at the border of Azerbijan, but was prevented by death from 
following up his advantages. 

Ismael Shah has always been esteemed by Persian historians as a 
monarch worthy of admiration and reverence. Something of the 
barbarian occasionally, however, appears in his deeds ; for example, 
his using as a drinking-cup the skull of the brave prince of the 
Usbecks, after the expulsion of that tribe from Khorasan. 

Tamasp, his son, came to the throne at an early age, and during 
a long reign, maintained the integrity of his empire against the 
attacks of the Usbecks and the Ottomans. He flourished in the time of 
Queen Elizabeth, of England, who sent an ambassador to his court. 

The greatest monarch of the line of Ismael, and the most 
celebrated of modern Persian kings, was Shah Abbas. He com- 
menced his career as governor of Khorasan, to which office he had 
been appointed while yet a mere child. He was prevailed upon by 
the nobility of this province to engage in hostilities against his 
father, and to lay claim to the crown. After a few years spent in 
desultory warfare between chiefs of different factions, the country 
being meanwhile exposed to the attacks of Tartar and Ottoman 
invaders. Shah Abbas succeeded in establishing himself firmly upon 
the Persian throne. 

The character of this powerful sovereign, whose reign was 
splendid and prosperous beyond that of any modern Persian prince, 
presented a strange compound of public spirit, and private vice and 
cruelt}^. A devotee in his religious faith, he aspired to reputation 
for great sanctity. Pilgrimages and self-humiliations were performed 
rather for the public eye than from the promptings of genuine faith, 
his sensual inclinations not permitting him to obey the precepts of 
the prophet in his private life. In foreign wars, and in the sup- 
pression of domestic revolt, he was bloody and remorseless. Huge 
piles of gory heads, after a victory, attested the success of his arms. 

In the improvement of the general condition of his empire, Shah 



PEESIA. 205 

Abbas spared neitlier laboiir nor expense. Magnificent institutions 
for learning, mosques, bridges, and otber works of public utility and 
ornament, are still shown to tbe traveller as monuments of his 
munificence and policy. The efficiency and discipline of his native 
forces were immeasurably increased by a wise encouragement of Eng- 
lish military adventurers, from whom he learned much of the 
modern art of war. Sir Anthony Shirley, accompanied by his 
brother and a few attendants, proceeded, at the instance of the Earl 
of Essex, to the court of the Shah, and was received with all the 
magnificence of Eastern royalty. They enjoyed familiar intercourse 
with the king, were promoted to the command of his armies, and 
were maintained in the most profuse and sumptuous manner. 

A friendly intercourse thus commenced between Great Britain and 
Persia; and, moved by equal jealousy towards the Portuguese, who 
had formed flourishing settlements at Ormuz, the forces of the Shah 
and those of the English East India Company united in an attack upon 
that island. They succeeded in capturing the place, and in destroying 
its prosperity, btit with little eventual benefit to their own interests. 

The different religious sects met with greater toleration in this 
reign than at any previous time since the country fell into the power 
of the Mahometans. 

The most unnatural and revolting portion of the history of Abbas 
remains to be told. Excited by jealousy towards his own sons, of 
whom, during their infancy, he had been passionately fond, he 
caused them to be successively put to death, or deprived of sight. 
His fury was in turn expended upon the instruments of his atro- 
cious resolves; and his declining years were deeply embittered by 
suspicion and remorse. 

The fourth in succession from Shah Abbas the Great, was the weak 
and bigoted Hussein Mirza, whose reign, for the first twenty years, 
was spent in slothful indulgence and superstitious observances. 
The close of his reign was disastrous to himself and his people. 
While the country was in a most unsettled condition, harassed by 
plundering hordes of wild Tartars, and under the sway of an imbe- 
cile monarch, a rebellion broke out among the Afghan tribes. 
Under Meer Vais, the leader of the revolt, they had deposed the 
provincial governor, and made successful incursions into Khorasan. 
When, by the death of his father, Meer Yais, and the murder of his 
uncle Abdoola, the authority devolved upon Mahmoud Ghiljee, a 
systematic invasion of Persia was planned and accomplished. 



206 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Instead of opposing a firm and vigorous resistance to the approach- 
ing enemy, the miserable Hussein listened only to the suggestions 
of flinatics and the predictions of astrologers. The Afghan forces, 
although greatly outnumbered, were every where victorious. Ispa- 
han yielded to the conqueror, after sustaining a seven months' siege, 
in which every extremity of famine and suffering was endured by 
the unfortunate inhabitants. Hussein Avas himself taken prisoner, 
compelled to do homage to the invader, and closely confined in prison, 
where he remained until his assassination in the succeeding reign. 

After Mahmoud had established himself upon the throne of Persia, 
symptoms of disaffection among his newly-acquired subjects aroused 
all the worst passions of his savage and cruel mind. He seems to have 
resolved upon confirming his authority by a universal massacre of all 
from whom he dreaded resistance. We have no record of the precise 
extent of this tragedy, but it was commenced by the slaughter of three 
hundred of the nobility, with their families, and of three thousand sol- 
diers who had been in the employ of the former monarch. 

Suspicion, apprehension, and the indulgence of his savage 
inclinations, finally brought on paroxysms of insanity; Avhich were 
aggravated by a system of seclusion and penance undertaken to pro- 
pitiate the Deity in his behalf It is said that he was put to death 
by order of his mother, in order to release him from his miser}^ 

He was succeeded by his cousin Ashruff, a son of Abdoolah, in 
whose reign an alliance was formed against Persia, between Russia 
and the Ottomans. 

In the mean time, Tamasp, son of Shah Hussein, who, since the 
capture of Ispahan and the imprisonment of his father, had kept 
up a semblance of regal authority at Mazunderan, began to increase 
in power. He was joined by Nadir Kouli, an Affshar chief of low 
origin, but of great military skill and enterprise. 

Their combined forces effected the overthrow of the Afghan mon- 
archy in Persia. Ispahan was retaken, and the Afghan population 
destroyed or dispersed. Few of them reached their native province 
in safety. Ashruff fled, but being some time afterwards recognised 
by his enemies, was slain, and his head was sent to Tamasp. 

Nadir, by whose enterprise and prowess this revolution was accom- 
plished, soon brought about the deposition of Tamasp, and took 
possessij:5n of the throne. He became Shah of Persia in the year 1736. 

Under the sway of this monarch, the former military glory of the 
empire revived. The Turks were expelled from the country; 



PEESIA. 207 

Bokhara and Afghanistan, Candahar and Balkh, were subdued, and an 
expedition into India terminated in the entire reduction of the Mogul 
empire. Some account of this campaign, and of the immense treasures 
obtained by the invaders, may be found in the description of India. 

Notwithstanding these brilliant successes, the life of Nadir Shah, 
by the unrestrained indulgence of his own evil passions, was made 
wretched in the extreme. Like his predecessors, Abbas and Mah- 
moud, his mind was continually racked by feelings of jealousy 
towards his own household, and fears of revolt among the subjects 
of his tyranny. Like them, he resorted to the most bloody and 
cruel expedients to allay these apprehensions ; which, perhaps, as in 
the case of Mahmoud, amounted to insanity. He ordered the eyes 
of his son Eeza to be put out, upon suspicion of a conspiracy ; and 
pursued a course of wholesale slaughter in the disaffected cities and 
provinces. This unscrupulous cruelty, however, only served to 
hasten the event he so much dreaded. He was assassinated by his 
own officers, anxious to secure their lives, which were in constant 
jeopardy from his caprice. 

Within a few j^ears after Nadir's death, the empire was separated 
into various distinct governments, until the rise of Kureem Khan 
about the middle of the eighteenth century. 

The blind Shah Rokh, a grandson of Nadir, wore the crown in 
Khorasan, by sufferance rather than by ability to cope with his 
more powerful neighbours. Over every other province Kureem 
obtained the ascendancy, and maintained it until his death in 1779. 
He was an upright and virtuous monarch, and governed his people 
with patriarchal simplicity. Although of humble birth, and totally 
uneducated, his natural good sense and courage obtained him the 
sceptre, which his love of justice, moderation, and benevolence 
proved him worthy to wield. A character like this stands forth in 
strong contrast among the selfish and cruel tyrants whose deeds, in 
this connection, we are so frequently forced to commemorate. 

The first king of the Kujur dynasty, which still retains supreme 
authority in Persia, was Aga Mohammed, who obtained possession 
of the throne in 1795, after a long contest with Lootf Khan Zund, 
grand-nephew of Kureem. The four sons of this last-mentioned 
monarch had previously perished in attempts to establish their 
hereditary claims. 

Aga Mohammed is represented to have been a man of the most 
forbidding appearance, his face being described as resembling that 



208 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

of a " sliri veiled old woman," and of manners and habits equally- 
repulsive. His character was a compound of ambition, avarice, 
vindictiveness, and brutal ferocity, counterbalanced by few redeem- 
ing traits. Instances of almost incredible meanness in pecuniary 
matters are related concerning liim. His cruelty and barbarity 
towards those who excited his anger or revenge, will sufficiently 
appear from the manner in which he treated the inhabitants of the 
city of Kerman, who had lent their support to his rival. The 
women and children were given as slaves to his soldiers, and all the 
men who escaped massacre were blinded, and driven, in this help- 
less condition, into the country. The tortures and indignities which 
he inflicted on the person of his unfortunate rival, and, for purposes 
of extortion, on the venerable Shah Epkh, stamp him as one of the 
worst wretches who ever held a throne. 

The tyrant was assassinated in 1797, by two of his attendants, 
whom, after sentencing them to death for some trifling cause, he 
had still, with the most infatuated confidence, allowed to remain 
near his person. 

His reign was chiefly remarkable for the inroads of the Eussian 
power upon the domains of Persia. Although at times checked by 
English interposition, and occasionally repulsed by the native forces, 
the Czar acquired and still maintains possession of extensive districts 
in the Avest, which formerly were included in the Persian empire. 

Aga Mohammed was succeeded by his nephew, Futeh Ali, in 
whose reign the struggle with the Hussians still continued. Despite 
some instances of success attending the Persian arms, this monarch 
was constrained, in the year 1828, to conclude a peace upon terms 
very advantageoiis to his opponent. 

Upon his decease in 1834, his grandson. Shah Mohammed, was by 
foreign interference established on the throne. This king reigned 
for fourteen years, during which time few events of interest occurred 
in connection with the empire : he was succeeded by his son Nessur 
ud Hoon, the present incumbent of the throne. 

From the extreme unpopularity of the Kujur family, and the 
general tokens of discontent which appear throughout the kingdom, 
the overthrow of the present dynasty is, by some, confidently pre- 
dicted; while the encroachment and diplomatic influence of the 
more powerfal and rapacious European nations seem to prohibit the 
probability that Persia will ever hereafter recover any portion of its 
former political power or prosperity. 



IID I A. 



ij i^ iLL Sf 1> 3a si io 



THE ANCIENT AND CLASSIC HISTORY OE INDIA 

To tlie more civilized nations of antiquity, India always appeared 
a land of mystery, romance, and mythology. We first learn of its 
existence in tlie half-fabulous expedition of Bacchus, who, in the 
remotest ages, was said to have extended his jovial conquests over 
these distant regions. Traversing the country in a car drawn by 
panthers, he subjugated the people, less by the terror of his arms, 
than by the genial ascendancy of the grape. At a later and more 
historical period, Sesostris, the famed Egyptian conqueror, is reported 
to have invaded India, but no particular record of his exploits has 
reached us. Next came the famous expedition of Semiramis, queen 
of Assyria; but all accounts of this are so stamped with exaggera- 
tion as to be only partially credible. 

According to Diodorus, having extended her empire over Bactria 
and all Western Asia, she resolved to attempt the conquest of India, 
which, even then, was considered the most powerful and wealthy 
region on the continent. Many vessels were prepared for crossing 
the Indus, and transported overland to that river; and a great 
number of artificial elephants, moved by concealed camels, were 
constructed for the purpose of terrifying the enemy. After three 
years spent in these singular preparations, she is said to have gained 
the shores of the river with a force of nearly a million of men. 
Stabrobates, a powerful Indian monarch, awaited her on the bank. 
An engagement first took place upon the river, in which the 
natives were defeated ; and the invader, bridging the stream, crossed 
with her entire army. In a great battle, however, which soon 
14 



210 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



ensued, the sliam elephants proved no match for their real and 
highly-trained opponents. The Assyrian army, in spite of the suc- 
cess of its cavalry, was completely routed, and Semiramis returned 
with scarcely a third of her immense forces. 

Darius, the Persian monarch, afterwards subdued some of the 
western provinces of India, and exacted from them an ample tribute 
in gold. In the meagre account of Herodotus, Indian customs, 
almost exactly similar to those now prevailing, are described. 
Scylax, a distinguished naval commander, was despatched by Darius 
on a voyage of discovery, and in two years and a half sailed down 
the Indus, and thence followed the coast to Egypt. 

The expedition of Alexander the Great, who about the ^^ear 
826 B, C. commenced his celebrated campaign, furnishes the first 
authentic and detailed account of this interesting region. He had 
conquered Persia and Bactria, and imagined that India was the only 
country yet worthy of his arms. As master of Persia, he founded 
his title upon the conquests and authority of Darius, though these 
had long been forfeited by his successors. India was indeed an 
almost undiscovered region, when the Macedonian invader crossed 
the Indus. Here he encountered no resistance, and was even rein- 
forced by a native prince, named Taxiles. Arriving at the river 
Hydaspes, he found its opposite bank occupied by a formidable 
army, composed of the more warlike tribes of India, and commanded 
by the brave and magnanimous Porus. By a feigned attempt in 
another quarter, the invading prince succeeded in transporting his 
chosen troops, over a wooded island, to the opposite shore. The 
king instantly attacked him, but after a fiercely-disputed battle, was 
defeated and taken prisoner. Being questioned as to the manner in 
which he wished to be treated, he replied simply, "Like a king." 
Alexander, struck with his fortitude, accorded him his friendship, 
increased his dominions, and ever after found him a faithful ally. 

The conqueror then pressed onward into the heart of India, taking 
many cities, and putting to death the philosophers (probably Brah- 
mins) who excited the native princes against him. He arrived 
at last on the banks of the Hyphasis, the modern Sutledge; and 
here his soldiers, even the veterans, mutinied, and refused to march 
any farther. Immense numbers of elephants, horsemen, and war- 
chariots were said to be waiting them on the banks of the Ganges ; 
and Alexander, in spite of his grief and despair, could not induce 
them to proceed. That his expedition might not be fruitless of 



INDIA. 211 

geographical discovery, lie resolved to return to Babylon, his eastern 
capitol, by an entirely new route. By the aid of the Phoenicians in 
his army, he speedily constructed a flotilla of two thousand vessels, 
with which he commenced his voyage down the river, and soon 
entered the Indus, of which it is a branch. During his voyage 
down these great rivers, (which was protracted to nine months,) he 
attacked and took many of the native cities. In storming a fortress 
of the Mali, a warlike nation, he received a dangerous wound, and 
nearly lost his life. 

The fleet at length arrived at the Indian Ocean, and the crews, 
accustomed to the tideless Mediterranean, were astonished at finding 
their vessels alternately grounded and then floated by the tides. 
Nearchus, the best naval commander in the army, was now despatched, 
with a small fleet, to circumnavigate the coast and effect discoveries, 
while the king, with the main body of his troops, marched home- 
ward by land. Both encountered the greatest privations and distress. 
Alexander, at last entering the rich and friendly countries of 
Gedrosia and Caramania, abandoned all discipline, and gave loose to 
revelry and frantic enjoyment. The whole army was converted into 
a sort of Bacchanalian procession, in the midst of which the king, 
emulating his predecessor Bacchus, rode, surrounded by his favour- 
ites, feasting, revelling, and crowned with flowers. All the soldiers 
followed their example, and nothing was to be seen but flagons, 
cups, and instruments of music. This triumph had been dearly 
obtained by the successful invader. Of the splendid army which 
he had led into India, amounting to an hundred and thirty-five 
thousand men, hardly a fourth remained. 

From the very interesting accounts which the historians of that 
time have transmitted to us, it would appear that very little change 
has occurred in the manners, customs, and religious rites of the 
singular people who inhabit the plains of India. The institution of 
strongly separated castes, the hereditary transmission of employment, 
the unnatural self-tortures of religious fanatics, and the immolation 
of widows upon the pyres of their deceased husbands, were all then, 
as now, distinguishing characteristicsi of the Hindoo race. The 
Granges is still worshipped, and the unhappy devotees of super- 
stition still expose themselves, in constrained and unnatural 
attitudes, naked to the burning rays of a tropical sun. Alexander 
took much interest in inquiring into the strange stoicism and self- 
denial of their philosophers, which certainly surpassed that of 



212 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

Diogenes and tlie whole scliool of Cynics. Calanus, one of tlie most 
distinguislied of their number, accompanied the conqueror to Babylon, 
and afterwards, in extreme old age, astonished the Greeks by 
terminating his existence, according to the custom of his sect, by 
voluntarily mounting a funeral-pile, and suffering himself to be 
consumed to ashes. 

The country then, as now, was highly cultivated, and swarming 
with life. The natives, judging from the success of the invader, 
were, with some exceptions, nearly as peaceful and unwarlike as 
at the present day. Agriculture was held in high honour, and 
the labouring husbandmen were respected even in the midst of 
hostile armies. 

On the death of Alexander, and the partition of his vast empire 
among his generals, India fell to the share of Seleucus. He is said 
to have made a successful expedition for the reduction of the country, 
although opposed by Sandracottus (Chadragupta), who had. already 
founded a great empire in the east of India. An ambassador, whom 
he despatched to Palibothra, (supposed to be Boglipoor,) the capital 
of this powerful native monarch, reported that the city was ten 
miles in length and two in breadth, and was defended by five hun- 
dred and seventy -four towers ; that the army of Sandracottus was 
composed of four hundred thousand men, with twenty thousand 
cavalry and two thousand chariots. Peace was concluded between 
the rivals, and cemented by intermarriage; Seleucus resigning his 
claim to all the provinces east of the Indus. 

After Bactria had become a powerful and independent Grecian 
state, few and meagre accounts have reached us of the connection 
which it doubtless maintained with its Eastern colonies or rivals. 
"No portion of ancient history equally interesting is involved in 
darkness so deep and hopeless. The kings of Bactria certainly 
invaded and reduced to obedience a portion of India, perhaps more 
extensive than was subjected by the arms of Darius or Alexander. 
Colonel Tod collected in the western provinces numerous coins and 
medals of the Bactrian monarchs. Menander, from the account given 
by Strabo, appears to have reigned over a very powerful empire. 
In conjunction with Demetrius, he had possessed himself of Patta- 
lene at the mouth of the Indus, and at the same time pushed his 
conquests considerably beyond the Hyphasis; while in the north, 
he had subdued all Tartary, as far as the Jaxartes. There appears 
even to have been for some time a Greek kingdom in India, inde- 



INDIA, 



213 



pendent of Bactria ; nay, it has been supposed by some eminent 
writers, that many features of the Hmdoo philosophy, which cer- 
tainly bear a striking resemblance to that of Pythagoras and Plato, 
were derived from a Grecian source; that even the Sanscrit, the 
learned language of India, whose construction has a wonderful 
affinity to the Greek, may have been an artificial dialect derived 
from that noble tongue; but much doubt still encumbers this 
hypothesis. Suffice it then to remark, that after a duration of more 
than a hundred years, the irruption of barbarous conquerors from 
the north, and the rise of the Parthian empire, put an end to the 
kingdom of Bactria."* 

A maritime communication with India opened by Eudoxus, who, 
about the year 130 B. C, under the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, 
sailed round the peninsula of Arabia into the Persian Gulf Suc- 
ceeding voyagers established an important commerce with the coasts 
of Malabar, and the luxury of Eome was supplied with jewels, 
spices, and with the beautiful fabrics of silk and cotton in which the 
natives still excel. Several of the ports frequented by these early 
traders have been identified. The navigation of such an exposed 
and extended line of coast, was necessarily tedious and dangerous 
in the extreme, until one Hippalus, observing the course of the 
monsoons, steered from the Red Sea directly across the ocean, and 
reduced the voyage to a comparatively safe and brief undertaking. 
Ceylon, with its celebrated pearl fisheries, was already known, and 
the Ganges, with a great city at its mouth, is described by ancient 
geographers. 

As the Roman empire became weakened and diminished, its 
communication with the East was lessened, and finally became 
unimportant. The irruption of the Mahometan hordes, in a few 
centuries, cut off Europe from all communication by the ancient 
channels of commerce. The Venetians and Genoese, the most intel- 
ligent and enterprising nations of the middle ages, made no attempts 
to open a direct commerce with these distant regions ; but contented 
themselves with trading to the shores of the Mediterranean or the 
Black Sea, whither the precious commodities of the East were trans- 
ported overland by caravans, or brought by the Arabian navigators. 

* History of British India. 



214 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 



tiiLiiiJidrAiiiiU iio 



THE EARLY MAHOMETAN INVADERS AND CONQUERORS OF 
INDIA. THE AFGHAN DYNASTY. TIMTJR THE TARTAR. 

The Saracens, in their miglity career of conquest, had overrun 
all Western Asia, and founded the most splendid, warlike, and 
civilized kingdoms of their time. India, by its remoteness and 
its peculiar position, had (except in a few partial and temporary 
forays) hitherto escaped invasion ; but in the year 997, Mahmoud, 
the son of Subuktagi, ascended the throne of Cabul and Khorasan, 
and soon proved one of the most successful conquerors of the 
day. His dominions, ere long, extended from the Caspian to the 
Indus; and reports of the boundless wealth of Hindostan inflamed 
his desire for further conquests. After he had made several suc- 
cessful expeditions across the Indus, a powerful coalition of the 
native sovereigns was formed against him, headed by Annindpal, 
prince of Lahore. Crossing the Indus in their turn, with one of 
the greatest armies ever assembled in India, they attacked the Mos- 
lems, who were intrenched on the plains of Peshawer. But this 
great and unwarlike multitude coiild make little impression on the 
forces of Mahmoud, trained to battle and conquest. Seized with a 
sudden panic, they broke into confusion and fled, twenty thousand 
perishing in the flight. The Mahometans, assuming the offensive, 
invaded their country, and returned laden with valuable spoils. 

This campaign taught the Moslems the weakness of their ene- 
mies; and their religious zeal, always alert for the destruction of 
idolatry, was inflamed by the thirst of rapine, when they discovered 
that the heathen temples, like those of Greece, were the depositories 
of immense treasures, the offerings of devotees. Having conquered 
the vale of Cashmere, the way lay open to the interior of India ; and in 
1017, with a Tartar army of an hundred and thirty thousand, mostly 
cavalry, Mahmoud marched in quest of fresh victories and richer 
spoils. Kanonge, the most powerful city in India, tendered its sub- 
mission, and his pious crusade was soon rewarded by the plunder 
of the shrine of Muthra, sacred to Krishna. All was carried off — 



INDIA. 9 15 

specie of an immense amount, pearls and jewels without number, 
and gigantic idols of pure gold, with eyes of ruby and of sapphire. 

In the year 1024, the conqueror, who liad already invaded the 
hapless country eleven times, undertook his last and greatest expe- 
dition. With twenty thousand camels loaded with supplies, he 
marched across the desert, and advanced to Sumnaut, the most 
sacred and the wealthiest shrine on the Indian Ocean. It was 
strongly situated on a peninsula, and was defended by a multitude 
of natives, inflamed with religious enthusiasm and the courage of 
despair. For two days, Mahmoud vainly endeavoured to storm the 
sacred precincts of the temple ; on the third, an immense army was 
seen advancing to its relief. A doubtful and terrible battle ensued, 
and the invaders, for the first time, saw themselves almost vanquished 
by the fury of the native enthusiasts. Victory at last declared in 
favour of Mahmoud; the garrison, disheartened by the defeat of 
their allies, abandoned their stronghold in a panic ; and the victors, 
entering the temple, were amazed at the grandeur and wealth dis- 
played on all sides. The priests vainly attempted, by offering 
immense sums, to save Sumnaut, the chief idol of the place, from 
the pious indignation of the conqueror. With a sturdy blow, he 
dashed it open, and disclosed an immense treasure of pearls, rubies, 
and diamonds, which had been carefully concealed in the image. 
The plunder collected on this occasion greatl}^ surpassed that of any 
former expedition. 

These invasions, however productive in a pecuniary view, led to no 
permanent conquest during the life of Mahmoud, who in 1030 died, 
at the age of sixty-three. This celebrated man, the first Mahome- 
tan invader of India, appears to have joined a certain natural justice 
and legislative talent to his avarice and fanaticism. His chief fault 
vfas his rapacity, from which even his own subjects were not 
always secure. Two days before his death, he commanded his 
immense spoils, collected from so many distant regions, to be once 
more displayed before his eyes, and his army, with its long array 
of cavalry and war-elephants, to defile past him; in a last procession. 

After his death, his descendants, though greatly reduced by the 
attacks of the Turks, under the dynasty of Seljuk, maintained for 
an hundred and fifty years their native dominions, without attempt- 
ing any further exploits in India. Mohammed Ghori, who in 1174 
seized the government, revived the ancient schemes of conquest, 
and assembling all his forces, advanced into the Indian country. The 



216 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



king of Delhi, supported by other native princes, encountered him 
with an army of two hundred thousand men, and three thousand 
elephants. The two leaders encountered hand to hand in the thick- 
est of the fight ; but the native forces for once prevailed ; Mohammed 
was wounded, and compelled to fly with his defeated army. 

Undismayed by this overwhelming reverse, he collected a fresh 
army, and in the following year renewed the war with a fresh inva- 
sion. He was opposed by forces more formidable than before, and 
all sworn by the sacred waters of the Ganges to conquer or to die. 
Disarming their vigilance by a pretence of negotiation, he fell upon 
their camp by night, and so disordered their embarrassed multitude, 
that he gained a complete victory, and carried off an immense amount 
of spoil. The king of Delhi fell, and Cuttub, an officer of Moham- 
med, soon after seized upon his city and throne, and established, 
for the first time, an independent Moslem sovereignty in India. 

Ere long, the new monarch, with his ally Mohammed, made an 
expedition against the sacred city of Benares, destroyed its idols, 
and loaded four thousand camels with the plunder of its shrines. 
Mohammed, after having made nine invasions of India, and accu- 
mulated treasures equal to those of his predecessor, Mahmoud, was 
assassinated by twenty -two dagger- wounds received from a band of 
conspirators, whose relatives had perished in his wars. 

Cuttub, the nominal viceroy of the late emperor, was, at his death, 
acknowledged as the independent sovereign of Delhi. After a reign 
distinguished by bravery, justice, and humanit}^, he expired in 1210. 
Altumsh, his slave, and afterwards his son-in-law and chief general, 
succeeded to the throne. He extended the new empire Avidely over 
India, reduced Bengal and Bahar to subject provinces, and made 
other important acquisitions. By refusing to shelter the defeated 
prince of the Afghans, he escaped the resistless arms of Zinghis 
Khan, who was then ravaging Asia, from the Caspian to the 
Pacific. He died in 1236, and the throne was occupied by his 
daughter Kizia Begum, whose talents caused her to be preferred to 
either of the princes. She was, however, overthrown, imprisoned, 
and finally put to death by her brother Byram. To him succeeded 
his younger brother, Mahmoud II., whose virtues and simplicity of 
life gained him universal popularity. At his death, the grand vizier, 
Balin, formerly a slave, ascended the throne, putting to death the 
chiefs who had been instrumental in his elevation, and Avho were 
unwilling to see him engross the entire power. This oriental crime 



INDIA. 217 

excepted, his reign appears one of tlie most admirable in tlie annals 
of Hindostan. His justice and generosity were proverbial, and bis 
court was, perhaps, the most refined and splendid in the world. 
Men of letters and science repaired thither from all quarters, and 
found ample encouragement. Various unfortunate princes, dethroned 
and exiled by the conquests of Zinghis and his successors, found a 
royal support and protection in his palace. He died in 1236. 

Kei Kobad, his grandson, who succeeded him, was murdered by 
Ferose, an Afghan usurper, who, in 1295, shared a similar fate at 
the hands of his own nephew, the able and ferocious Allah. The 
latter, a man of great military talent, subdued Aurungabad and the 
Carnatic, and despoiled the conquered nations of greater treasures 
than any of his predecessors. 

The Mongols (or Moguls), the successors of Zinghis, now com- 
menced their invasion of India, but were at first completely defeated 
in Lahore. Two years afterwards, they again invaded the country 
with two hundred thousand men, and Delhi was crowded with fugi- 
tives driven before their successful march. Allah, however, with his 
forces, sallied out, and so severely repulsed them, that they retreated 
westward, and the danger was for a^ time averted. After a reign 
marked by caprice, cruelty, and licentiousness, he died, probably 
poisoned by one of his profligate favourites. 

His son, Mubarick I., was placed upon the throne in 1316, and 
after three years, rendered infamous by his vices, was assassinated. 
Tuglick, a slave, took his place, and after a just and moderate reign 
of four years, was succeeded by his son Mohammed III., a monster 
of crime and cruelty. It is related that, with his army, he was 
accustomed to hunt the inhabitants of any obnoxious province, for 
his amusement, as beasts of chase. He resolved to conquer the 
world, in emulation of Alexander; but of an hundred thousand 
men, whom he despatched against China, the greater part were des- 
troyed in the passes of the Himmaleh, and a mere handful returned 
to Delhi. He also made great preparations for conquest in the west; 
but all his talents and resources were required to suppress the rebel- 
lions which his severities had excited. The Deccan, an important 
province of his dominions, was erected into a separate kingdom by 
a Mogul chieftain, who assumed the title of Allah I. 

Mohammed died in 1331, and was succeeded by his cousin, 
Ferose III., who, in a reign of thirty-eight years, conferred great 
benefits on the empire by his justice, clemency, and public spirit. 



218 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

To him the country was indebted for numerous bridges, reservoirs, 
and other works of public utility. During the short and precarious 
reigns which succeeded, the provinces began to declare their inde- 
pendence; but in 1397, the invasion of Timur the Tartar decided 
the destinies of India. 

This extraordinary man, who had already become formidable, 
perceiving the distracted condition of the country, resolved to found 
a new empire in the East. He left his capital of Samarcand, and 
crossing the Indian Caucasus, with his Scythian cavalry, attacked 
Moultan. He took Batneir, and massacred all the inhabitants. He 
then advanced toward Delhi, and on his way, encumbered with 
captives, ordered a hundred thousand of them to be butchered. 
Mahmoud, the emperor, was in his capital with a strong force of 
elephants, cavalry, and infantry, and might, perhaps, have made an 
effectual resistance; but by an artful manoeuvre, was enticed to take 
the field, and instantly defeated by the more hardy and ferocious 
troops of the invader. The city submitted, and was given up to 
unrestrained pillage, and the natives, vainly resisting, were indis- 
criminately massacred. 

Timur, after a campaign in the neighbourhood of the Himmaleh, 
recrossed the Indus, and proceeded on the memorable expedition 
which resulted in the capture of Bajazet, and the prostration, for a 
time, of the Ottoman empire. 

After his departure, the Indian provinces, though acknowledging 
his nominal sovereignty, were each, in effect, independent; though 
in 1413, at the death of Mahmoud, Chizier, a viceroy of Timur, 
administered the government of Delhi, Agra, and other provinces, 
with vigour and prudence. Various reigns, of little interest, suc- 
ceeded. After the death of Timur, and that of his able son. Shah 
Eokh, his vast dominions fell to pieces. His great-grandson, a 
youth of twelve, named Baber, inherited the Valley of Ferghana, 
and afterwards pursued a most singular career of conquest and 
adventure, "He was the knight-errant of Asia, and spent his whole 
life winning and losing kingdoms. The adventures which the 
romances of the middle ages ascribe to their fabulous heroes, were 
realized in him. At one moment he was ruler of a great kingdom ; 
in the next, had scarcely a hut to shelter him ; now he was at the 
head of a numerous army, and now he was hardly able to muster 
a hundred adherents." After having won and lost Samarcand, this 
enterprising prince gained possession of Cabul, a,nd began to make 



INDIA. 



219 



incursions into Hindostan. Eesolving to win another kingdom, 
witli only thirteen thousand horse, he marched upon Delhi. Ibra- 
him II., the emperor, with a thousand elephants and a hundred 
thousand cavalry, sallied out to meet him. These forces, being 
distributed in a line, were easily broken by the active charge of the 
Moguls ; Ibrahim fell, and his army was put to flight. Baber, after 
this decisive blow, ascended at once the throne of Delhi (1526). 
Thus ended the dynasty of the Afghan emperors, who for three 
hundred years had ruled a great part of Hindostan. Several of 
them had been originally slaves, and no family had held the throne, 
in regular succession, for any considerable time. It is said that, not- 
withstanding some tyrannical reigns, and some merciless invasions, 
the condition of the people was generally, during this interval, 
prosperous and happy. 



Kj ujui J/ii iL iL Jj iLfi iL Ji Jj 



THE MOGUL DYNASTY, BABEE, AKBAE, JEHANGIRE, ATIRENGZEBE. 
DECLINE OF THE IMPERIAL POWER. 

The throne of Baber was yet far from" secu.re. The chiefs of 
the late monarch and the warlike Eajpoot princes were leagued 
against him. An army of one hundred thousand men, commanded 
by Mahmoud, a brother of the late emperor, was assembled in the 
west; and even the bravest captains of the invader counselled a 
retreat toward the Indus. Baber, however, refused to relinquish 
his brilliant conquest, and animated his army by reawakening the 
old Moslem enthusiasm. He had moreover a train of artillery and 
a force of musketeers, novel and formidable assistants in Indian 
warfare. Battle being joined, his soldiers, arranged in a close square, 
maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy with continued 
discharges. Watching a favourable moment, he charged with the 
choicest of his troops, and won a complete victory. This event 
secured his reign, which, however, only lasted till 1530, when he died. 
The character of this singular man appears to have been more open 



220 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY 



and jovial than that of other Mahometan conquerors. He displayed 
great personal bravery, as well as military skill, and had a passion 
for adventure and conviviality that seems rather to belong to the 
gay knight-errantry of Europe than to the gravity of Moslem 
despotism. 

His son, Humaioon, who succeeded him, was defeated by Shere 
Khan, a chief of the former dynasty, was compelled to fly for his life 
across the desert, and took refuge at the court of Persia. Being 
furnished with assistance by the Shah, he obtained the sovereignty 
of Cabul, where he reigned for nine years. Meanwhile, Shere had 
gained complete possession of the empire, and greatly enlarged its 
boundaries. After an admirable reign of five years, he died, leaving 
a son of only nine years of age. Humaioon, taking advantage of 
the opportunity, marched to recover his throne, and was encountered 
by Secunder, a nephew of the late emperor, who had succeeded him. 
After an obstinate battle, Humaioon defeated his rival, and 
regained possession of Delhi, from which he had been an exile for 
thirteen years. 

He died, however, in the following year, (1556,) and his son 
Akbar, a youth of thirteen, ascended the throne. He had already 
distinguished himself by his heroism in the late contest, and now, 
with equal courage and policy, defended his throne from its numer- 
ous enemies. Crossing the Ganges with only a hundred horse, he 
attacked by night the camp of the rebellious chiefs of Bengal, 
completely dispersed them, and killed their leader with his own 
hand. On another occasion he marched with a select troop of cavalry 
seven hundred miles in nine days, and suppressed a formidable 
insurrection in Guzerat. By a succession of these daring feats, 
more fitted apparently for a guerilla chieftain than the sovereign of 
fifty millions of men, he struck terror into the hearts of his ene- 
mies, and established his sway over nearly all the provinces of India 
which had ever been held by Mahometan conquerors. Like Will- 
iam the Conqueror, he caused statistics of every province and every 
production of his empire to be carefully compiled. 

During his reign certain Portuguese missionaries, the first whom 
he had seen, were invited to court, and entertained strong hopes of 
converting the emperor ; but after a dispute with the Mahometan 
mollahs, wisely refused an insane trial of faith to which the latter 
invited them. The proposal was made that one of their antagonists 
should leap into a flaming furnace with the Koran, if either of the 



INDIA. 



221 



Portuguese would follow him with the Bible 5 in order that the 
emperor might judge which of the two volumes would confer the 
greatest protection on its devotee. Eefusing to comply with this 
fanatical test, they returned, after receiving courteous treatment, to 
the settlement of Goa. Akbar died in 1605, after a brilliant and 
successful reign of fifty-one years. 

His son Selim, who succeeded him, assumed the vain-glorious 
title of Jehangire, or "conqueror of the world" — an epithet to which 
his achievements hardly entitled him. This prince is chiefly known 
by his passion for the beautiful Noor-mahal, whose husband, Shere 
Afkun, he treacherously devoted to death — a striking parallel to 
the history of David and the wife of Uriah. The brave chief came 
off" victorious in a conflict with an elephant and a tiger, to which he 
had been meanly exposed; but afterwards was slain by a multitude 
of assassins, numbers of whom he killed before receiving his death- 
blow. The emperor gained his prize; but, struck with remorse, 
refused to see her, and for four years she lived neglected in a corner 
of his palace. At length, his passion reawakening, she became his 
favourite queen, and held complete control over his mind. 

In the year 1607, an English mission, under Captain Hawkins, and 
in 1615, another, under Sir Thomas Eoe, were despatched to attempt 
the opening of commercial intercourse; both were dazzled by the 
splendour of the court, and were treated with tolerable civility ; but 
were unable to obtain any advantageous terms from the monarch. 

The latter part of his life was rendered miserable by domestic 
troubles. His son Shah Jehan, after assassinating his own brother 
Chusero, who stood between him and the throne, raised a rebellion. 
This being suppressed by the valour and generalship of Mohabet, 
an able officer of the court, the emperor's jealousy, stimulated by 
Noor-mahal, alighted on the latter, who soon found himself treated 
with ungrateful indignity. Enraged, he seized, by a sudden move- 
ment, upon the person of his sovereign. Noor-mahal and her 
brother Asiph, the prime minister, made a desperate attempt to 
restore his liberty. In the battle which ensued, the queen, fighting 
fiercely with her own hands, sought the midst of the enemy; but 
Mohabet gained the victory, and retained his captive. Having 
released him, and restored him to his position, the rebellious chief 
was for a time compelled to fly. Jehangire died on the 9th of 
November, 1627, bequeathing the throne to Shariar, his son by 
Noor-mahal. 



222 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

By tlie support of Asiph and Mohabet, Sliali Jelian, the rival 
heir, gained possession of the kingdom, and instantly fortified his 
title by the murder of his brother and all his nephews — leaving 
none of the blood of Timur, except in the veins of himself and his 
children. Lodi, a distinguished chief, for some time, maintained a 
successful opposition, but was .finally defeated and slain. Assisted 
by the wise counsels of his two supporters, the monarch reigned 
with some justice and moderation. He at one time commenced a 
persecution of the Hindoo faith, but soon resumed the toleration 
so honourable to his predecessors. 

He made few acquisitions of territory, but devoted himself 
passionately to the royal amusement of building. The noblest 
palaces, mosques, and mausoleums in India were erected by him, and 
several yet exist, attesting the magnificence of the court of Delhi. 

For twenty years, his reign was prosperous and fortunate. At 
the end of that time, his peace was continually disturbed, and finally 
his throne itself undermined by the ambition of his sons. Dara, 
Sujah, and Morad, were openly brave, ambitious, and warlike. 
Aurengzebe, the youngest, a rigid Mahometan, was of a reserved 
and grave depoitment, but exceeded them all in political craft and 
foresight. Taking advantage of the emperor's illness, he formed an 
alliance with Sujah and Morad against Dara, the heir to the throne. 
The latter was despatched by his father to endeavour to crush the 
formidable confederacy. With an hundred thousand cavalry, he 
awaited near Agra the attack of his rebellious brothers, Morad and 
Aurengzebe. He was completely defeated, chiefly by the skill and 
courage of the latter, who, Morad being wounded, assumed the 
entire control of the forces, and marched to gain possession of the 
emperor's person. This undutiful purpose he effected by a m.ost 
treacherous stratagem, and the unfortunate monarch was over- 
whelmed with rage and despair. 

The artful usurper seized his brother Morad at a banquet, to which 
he had invited him ; but could not feel his power secure while Dara 
and Sujah were yet at liberty. He first engaged the latter, and 
routed him, after a desperate battle, near Allahabad. Dara, who 
was posted in a position of extraordinary strength, in Rajpootana, 
deceived by an artful stratagem, admitted the enemy, was defeated, 
and compelled to fly. Being treacherously delivered to the usurper, 
he was led in rags through the streets of Delhi, and soon after 
assassinated by order of the emperor. Sujah, after another unsuc- 



INDIA. 223 

cessful attempt, in whicli he was assisted by Moliammed, tlie son of 
Aurengzebe, was betrayed, and perished among his enemies. Shah 
Jehan, the dethroned monarch, survived the loss of his empire for 
eight years, and was treated with every appearance of respect and 
deference by his usurping son. 

Aurengzebe, for many years, ruled in prosperity over the vast 
empire of the Moguls, and included nearly all India and several 
neighbouring states within its limits. His revenues amounted to 
nearly an hundred and fifty millions of dollars — an income, at that 
period, unexampled. Despite the violence, craft, and injustice 
which had secured his accession, he reigned, considering the age 
and the country, with much justice, moderation and virtue. The 
lower classes of Hindoos, however, then, as ever since, appear to 
have been held in a state^ of servitude and degradation. 

A formidable invasion, menaced by the powerful sovereign of 
Persia, Shah Abbas, was averted by his sudden death; and a 
dangerous fanatical insurrection, headed by an old woman, was 
suppressed, after a formidable demonstration, by an appeal to the 
Mahometan enthusiasm and superstition. In the year 1686, a power- 
ful force was sent into the Deccan, and after meeting a vigorous 
resistance, took possession of Golconda and Bejapore. 

About this time arose the formidable Mahratta power, so long the 
terror of the East. Sevajee, a youth of great courage and enter- 
prise, had commenced a kind of predatory warfare, with a company 
of the fierce natives inhabiting the Maharashta, a mountainous 
region in the north-west of India. His increasing power having 
drawn upon him the enmity of the king of Bejapore, he sought and 
gained the protection of Aurengzebe, by declaring himself his 
vassal, and thus retained possession of all his conquests. During 
the early contests, however, he seized plunder and territory from 
both the conflicting powers, and was thus enabled to extend his 
possessions until he commanded an army of fifty-seven thousand 
men. The Mogul emperor, resolved to remain the entire master of 
India, sent a powerful force against him; which, however, accom- 
plished little against the active and resolute chief He soon captured 
Surat, the richest city in India, and plundered it of a million sterling. 
A more powerful expedition at last reduced him to extremity, and 
he surrendered himself, on pledge of honourable treatment, to the 
Mogul. He was nevertheless kept close prisoner, but at last escaping, 
once more raised his standard on his inaccessible hills. Hence 



224 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

he again pounced upon the low countries, collected great plunder, 
and increased his possessions. He assumed the title of sovereign, 
and had coin struck in his name. He even took Golconda, and 
pushed his conquests boldly into the Carnatic. His adventurous 
career was terminated by death in 1680. 

His successor, Sambajee, at first successfully resisted the Mogul 
armies; but on the occasion of the conquest of Golconda and Beja- 
pore, by the forces of Aurengzebe, was taken and cruelly put to 
death before the eyes of the emperor. His brother Eama, however, 
long defended himself in an almost impregnable fortress of the 
Carnatic, and at length the indomitable Mahrattas, mustering in great 
force, poured down into the plains of India, and made fresh and 
repeated conquests. The heavy armed cavalry of the Moguls, 
resistless in a pitched battle, could make little impression upon these 
light and dexterous horsemen, especially in the dificult passes of 
their own country. Allured by booty, their ranks continually 
increased, and they gained possession, ere long, of a large portion 
of Central India. 

The bigotry of Aurengzebe, in his latter years, impelled him to 
resolve on extirpating the ancient Hindoo religion. The splendid 
temples of Benares and Muthra were levelled to the ground, and 
Mahometan mosques were erected in their places. These violent 
measures excited the detestation of the native population, and 
greatly aided the spread of the Mahratta power. 

The emperor's children, following his own example, had already 
given him much trouble by their rebellious spirit. Mohammed, 
the eldest, had died in prison ; Akbar, another, was in open rebellion 
with the Mahrattas ; and the others evidently waited with an anxious 
eye for the event which should allow a fresh struggle for the empire. 
The latter part of his reign was passed in gloom and despondency. 
He expired on the 21st of February, 1707, in the ninety-fourth year 
of his age, and the forty-ninth of his reign. His last hours were 
deeply embittered by the remembrance of his crimes and his career 
of usurpation. He appears to have possessed, in an eminent degree, 
the vices and virtues of the Moslem race. Though ambitious, 
fanatical, and imrelenting, he was nevertheless temperate, impartial, 
and highly charitable. 

At his death. Shah Allum, the eldest son, and heir to the throne, 
made the most liberal offers to his brothers. They, however, pre- 
ferred to try the fortune of war, in which they both perished. The 



INDIA. 



225 



new emperor further secured his peaceful accession by a treaty with 
the Mahrattas, who were allowed to receive a share of the revenues 
of those districts which they had been in the habit of plundering. 

The Sikhs, a religious sect, whose belief was compounded of the 
Hindoo and Mahometan faiths, had been cruelly persecuted by 
Aurengzebe, and converted into determined enemies of the crown. 
Headed by Gooroo Govind, whose father he had executed, they 
commenced a formidable predatory warfare. Though in some 
measure suppressed by the late emperor, at his death they again 
took the field, headed by a chief named Banda. Sallying from 
their fastnesses on the borders of the Himmaleh, they committed 
terrible devastations ; and the emperor, taking the field in person, 
was enabled, with difficulty, to check their incursions. 

Shah Allum, instead of imitating the murderous policy of his 
predecessors, delighted to be surrounded by his relations and 
descendants. He appears to have been a virtuous and accomplished 
prince, and to have done much for the peace and prosperity of his 
empire. He died at Lahore, in 1712, after a reign of only five years. 

His son Moiz-ud-dien (called Jehander Shah) succeeded him, 
being supported by a powerful omrah named Zulfeccar, who defeated 
and put to death his three brothers, rival claimants of the crown. 
He proved, however, so dissolute and feeble, that ere long, with his 
adviser, he was defeated and put to death by Hussein and Abdoola, 
two powerful brothers, who elevated to the throne Feroksere, a 
grandson of Shah Allum. Administering the government with 
much vigour, they defeated Banda, and put- him to death with the 
most cruel tortures. At the end of seven years, they had put to 
death the emperor whom they had elevated, and replaced him^ 
within a year, with three others of the royal family — the two first 
dying almost immediately after their accession to the throne. 
Mohammed Shah, the last, was desirous, like Feroksere, of throw- 
ing off" the yoke which left him but a nominal sovereignty ; and at 
length, by a sudden conspiracy, slew Hussein, seized Abdoola, and 
entered Delhi in triumph. He soon exhibited, however, the same 
incapacity which had already marked the descendants of Aureng- 
zebe; and his two most powerful supporters, Nizam-ul-Mulk and 
Saadut Khan, withdrawing in displeasure, formed independent 
sovereignties — the first in the Deccan, and the latter in Oude. 

The Mahrattas now began openly to contend for the empire, and 
advanced to Agra, overrunning the country on their way. They 
15 



226 



THE PEOPLE' SBOOK OF HISTOEY. 



were repulsed by Saadut; but under the weak rule of Mohammed, 
renewed their incursion, and plundered the environs of Delhi itself. 
A far more formidable foe, however, was at hand. Nadir Shah, 
the powerful usurper of the throne of Persia, having gained pos- 
session of Cabul and Candahar, began to cast a covetous eye upon 
the boundless wealth of Hindostan. A pretext for war was easily 
found in Mohammed's refusal to deliver certain fugitives ; and push- 
ing rapidly into India, he arrived within four days' march of Delhi 
before the emperor was aware of his approach. Hastily collecting 
forces, Saadut Khan engaged him, but was easily defeated and taken 
prisoner. A treaty was then made, and Mohammed, with Nizam- 
ul-Mulk, entered the camp of the enemy in confidence. They 
were, however, treacherously seized by the invader, who at once 
marched on Delhi. A popular resistance was punished by a general 
massacre, and the imperial treasury was plundered of an immense 
quantity of jewels and other treasures, the accumulation of ages. 
The spoil carried off by the Persian monarch and his oihcers was 
estimated at one hundred and fifty millions of dollars. 

Satisfied with the richness of his plunder, and the cession of all 
provinces west of the Indus, Nadir Shah replaced Mohammed on the 
throne, gave him some salutary advice, and departed. Eight years 
afterwards he was assassinated, and Ahmed Abdalla, one of his officers, 
took possession of Afghanistan. Incited by the success of Nadir, 
he, in 1747, passed the Indus, defeated the imperial forces, and 
plundered the city of Sirhind. Soon after this event, the emperor 
died, and was succeeded by his son Ahmed Shah, who, after a brief 
reign, was deposed by an able officer, GrhaZee-ud-Dien, who raised to 
the throne a son of Jehander Shah, under the title of Aulumgere 11. 

The condition of the empire was as weak and distracted as 
possible when Ahmed Abdalla, enraged at an act of hostility, again 
invaded it, marched to Delhi, and renewed the sanguinary scenes 
of the time of Nadir. After his departure, a contest between Gha- 
zee and the emperor ensued, in which the latter was assassinated 
and his body thrown into the Jumna. By this time, however, the 
Mogul dynasty, as an effective power, had ceased to exist, and the 
contest for empire lay between the Afghans and the Mahrattas, 
which latter, assisted by the Sikhs, now made a grand effort for the 
entire mastery of India. With an immense body of cavalry, they 
overran, not only Agra and Delhi, but the western provinces of 
Moultan and ijahore, and drove the Afghans beyond the Indus. 



INDIA. 227 

Ahmed Abdalla, with a formidable army, in turn marched into 
the countrjr, and occupied Delhi. In a battle, which soon ensued, 
the Mahratta army, of eighty thousand men, was almost entirely 
destroyed. Undismayed by this disaster, they assembled in the fol- 
lowing year, to the number of an hundred and forty thousand, and, 
commanded by the vizier and nephew of their supreme prince, 
marched upon Delhi. The Jumna, swelled by rains, separated them 
from the enemy ; but Abdalla, plunging in with his whole force, 
swam across, and so alarmed the enemy that they retreated to a 
strong intrenchment. At length, risking a battle in the open plain, 
they were again entirely defeated, and twenty-two thousand of them 
were taken prisoners. 

Nothing would have been easier than for the victor to have seated 
himself on the throne of India ; but he replaced the son of Aulum- 
gere, with the still- venerated title of "Great Mogul," upon the 
nominal throne, and retired to his own country. From this time 
the more interesting incidents in the fate of the Indian empire are 
connected with that wonderful power, which from the ends of the 
earth, sent its colonists and conquerors to these inviting regions. 



C'H APTEE I?. 

EARLY EUROPEAN BISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. EXPEDI- 
TIONS OF THE PORTUGUESE AND DUTCH 

The enterprising genius of the Portuguese once placed them in 
the first rank of maritime adventure and discovery. The venturous 
expeditions fitted out by John I. and Prince Henry, and afterwards 
by John II., had already, in 1486, acquainted Europe with much 
of the western coast of Africa. In that year, the last mentioned 
monarch resolved on a grand scheme of discovery and commercial 
enterprise. Bartholomew Diaz, a skilful officer, was placed in com- 
mand of three vessels, with orders, if possible, to double the southern 
extremity of the African continent. After being driven far to the 
southward, and encountering storms and severe cold, the daring 



228 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

navigator steered to the north, and found himself, to his siirprise, 
on the eastern shore of Africa. Eeturning by the coast, he dis- 
covered that famous promontory, which he named "The Cape of 
Storms," but on which his patron, more sanguine, bestowed the title 
of " The Cape of Good Hope." A mission, despatched to India at the 
same time, by way of the Eed Sea, reported favourably of the 
probable advantages of a direct traffic. 

The wonderful discoveries of Columbus, made at this time, greatly 
stimulated the spirit of emulation and adventure among the Portu- 
guese. In 1495 Emmanuel, who succeeded John, fitted out another 
expedition in three vessels, under the renowned Vasco de Gama, 
who sailed on the 8th of July, 1497. After encountering the storms 
so terrible to early navigators, he arrived at Melinda, a town on the 
eastern coast of Africa, and procured a pilot. Stretching across the 
Indian Ocean with favourable breezes, he beheld in twenty-three 
days the long-desired coast of India. Landing at Calicut, he 
commenced negotiations with the Zamorin, or native prince, for a 
commercial intercourse; but owing to the jealousy of the Moorish 
traders, who represented his expedition as piratical, made no great 
progress. Some of his officers having been arrested, he captured a 
number of native dignitaries, and held them as hostages, until his 
men were released. He still detained several to be conveyed to Por- 
tugal as witnesses of the wealth and power of his nation. Finding that 
great preparations for hostilities were made, he thought it advisable 
to return, and, after encountering much difficulty from storms and 
the ravages of the scurvy, reentered the Tagus with only half of 
his crews. 

The nation lost not a moment in taking advantage of the import- 
ant channel of commerce which he had discovered, A fleet of 
twelve ships, strongly armed, and manned with thirteen hundred 
men, was immediately fitted out ; and Alvarez Cabral, an able navi- 
gator, was appointed to the command. He embarked on the 8th of 
March, 1500, and stretching westward to avoid Africa, made the 
new and brilliant discovery of Brazil. 

At the Cape of Good Hope, he encountered, for two months, a 
series of frightful tempests, in one of which perished the renowned 
Bartholomew Diaz. Having lost four ships, the Portuguese fleet, 
pursuing nearly the same course as its predecessor, arrived at Cali- 
cut. The captives whom Gama had carried off, were restored, 
handsomely dressed, and read}'" to declare to the natives their good 



INDIA. 



229 



treatment. Cabral was admitted to an audience witli tlie zamorin, 
wlio received him in barbaric splendour, his person being covered 
with the most precious jewels. The Moorish influence, however, 
was still such, that the Portuguese vessels, after waiting for months, 
could obtain no cargoes. Irritated at this, the adventurers seized, by 
permission of the prince, a Moorish ship, which was about to depart, 
richly laden with spices. The Moors and natives, enraged at this 
act of violence, proceeded to the Portuguese factory, and after 
meeting a desperate resistance, slew fifty of its defenders. A few 
escaped to the boats which Cabral had despatched to their relief 
In retaliation, the latter instantly plundered and burnt ten Moorish 
vessels, and then bombarded the city. 

After this revenge, he proceeded southward to Cochin, with which 
he opened a friendly intercourse. A cargo of pepper, his chief 
object, was readily obtained, and steering homewards, he reached 
Lisbon in July, 1501. The king, relying on the papal grant which 
he had obtained, as a title to all eastern discoveries, now assumed 
the pompous title of "Lord of the IsTavigation, Conquest, and Com- 
merce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India." To enforce this 
sublime pretension, he despatched a fresh fleet of twenty sail, under 
Gama, who again set sail to carry out his former undertakings. 
After murdering many of the natives whom he had captured at sea, 
and exercising the utmost cruelty, he was attacked in his single 
ship by thirty-four proas, and only escaped by cutting his cable and 
running to sea. He afterwards took several valuable prizes, and 
returned to Portugal. Three expeditions, under the Albuquerques 
and Saldanha, soon followed; but after some hostilities with the 
zamorin, they returned, leaving a few hundred men to assist their 
ally, the prince of Cochin, who was hard pressed by the former. 

Fifty thousand men were on their march against the little settle- 
ment of Europeans, yet Pacheco, their commander, assured his ally 
of undoubted protection. By the strong position of the city, the 
aid of artillery, and the undaunted bravery of his troops, he was 
enabled to defy all the assaults of the enemy, who, after losing great 
numbers of his men, was compelled to retreat to Calicut, 

The foundation of the Portuguese power in India was thus laid. 
Soarez, who succeeded Pacheco, cannonaded with his fleet the cities 
of Calicut and Cranganor, and reduced great part of them to ashes. 
In 1505, Francisco Almeyda was sent out with a large fleet, and 
with the pompous title of Viceroy of India. To revenge the murder 



230 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



of certain Portuguese, lie destroyed the fleet of Coiilan, a port, 
■vvhitlier tliey had been in the habit of trading. The Portuguese 
power was next exposed to a most formidable danger. The sultan 
of Cairo, inflamed by religious fanaticism and by revenge for real 
injuries, resolved to extirpate the infidel invaders, and accordingly 
sent a powerful fleet against them, under Mir Hocem. This admi- 
ral, reinforced by Melique Az, the viceroy of Diu, with a vastly 
superior force, engaged Lorenzo, the viceroy's son, who had been 
sent to intercept him. The Portuguese commander fought for two 
days with the most determined valour, but was at last defeated 
and slain. 

Almeyda, hastening to avenge the death of his son, sailed, with 
nineteen ships, in pursuit of the enemy. On his way, he stormed 
the hostile city of Dabul, which, after a terrible massacre of its 
inhabitants, was reduced to ashes. He then attacked the combined 
fleets of the enemy in the Gulf of Cambay, completely defeated 
them, and obtained great spoil. This victory was disgraced by a 
general massacre of his prisoners. 

Meanwhile, Alphonso Albuquerque, who had gained splendid suc- 
cesses in Arabia and at Ormuz, had arrived, and already presented 
his commission as governor of India. The disappointed Almeyda, 
though at first resisting, was persuaded to yield to the royal author- 
ity, and set sail for Portugal. He never reached his native country, 
being slain in a fight with certain Hottentots on the southern coast 
of Africa. 

Albuquerque, strongly reinforced, now cherished vast plans of 
conquest and empire in the East. In January, 1610, he arrived, 
with a powerful fleet, before the hated city of Calicut. After a 
most daring assault, in which the city was for a time taken, he was 
compelled to retreat, with the loss of his associate, Coutinho, and 
many other nobles of high rank. Undismayed at this disaster, the 
viceroy entertained fresh pla,ns of invasion and settlement. The 
zebaim or prince of the strong city of Goa was at war in the inte- 
rior, and his capital lay unprotected. Albuquerque arrived there 
with his fleet on the 25th of February, and the city, fearing to lose 
its commerce, at once capitulated. He immediately institiited a 
government of his own, and carefully stvidied the protection and 
prosperity of his subjects. 

The zebaim, naturally enraged and alarmed at the loss of his 
chief city, immediately took measures to regain it; and concluding 



INDIA. 



231 



a peace witli his adversaries, several of wliom joined him, marched 
to Goa, with upwards of forty thousand men. His first attack was 
baffled, the city being, from its insular position, difficult of access. 
Nevertheless he contrived, during a stormy night, to transport over 
his whole force, and the Portuguese commander was compelled, 
after hard fighting, to take refuge in the fort, and afterwards in his 
fleet, which was near at hand. He then waged an active and preda- 
tory warfare, cutting off the enemy's vessels, and sometimes landing 
and carrying off much spoil. 

Having thus discouraged and intimidated the natives, he resolved 
to make a fresh attempt on Goa; and with only fifteen hundred 
Portuguese, and a small force of native allies, appeared before the 
city. He commenced with a long and severe cannonade, and then 
landing, was enabled, after a desperate contest of six hours, to regain 
possession. He immediately resumed his efforts to establish a colony 
and a stable government, and entered into friendly communication 
with the neighbouring powers. The natives were further conciliated 
by many intermarriages of the Portuguese with the ladies of the 
country. 

Pursuing his conquests, the viceroy next made an exj)edition to 
Malacca, the capital of which was taken by storm, and converted into 
a Portuguese settlement. During this time, and after his return, 
fresh contests ensued with the zebaim, who, though gaining at first 
considerable success, was finally and effectually repulsed. The next 
exploit of Albuquerque was to gain possession of Ormuz, the 
wealthy emporium of the Persian Gulf. His brilliant career was 
interrupted by the ingratitude of his sovereign, who, probably 
dreading his increasing greatness, suddenly deprived him of his 
post. He survived this blow but a short time, dying of a broken 
heart, in December, 1515. His death was deeply deplored, not 
only by his own countrymen, but by the native inhabitants, to whom 
he had endeared himself by many acts of justice and conciliation. 

After the death of this great commander, the Portuguese gained 
few accessions to their Eastern territories, though they maintained 
their empire already established, and their exclusive commerce, for 
more than a century longer. They were, however, in general, 
hated by the natives, whom their persecution and rapacity kept in 
continued hostility. The Inquisition was, at an early day, estab- 
lished in Goa, and rivalled the worst horrors of that iniquitous 
institution in Europe. 



232 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

In 1536, tlie colonies became involved in a formidable contest 
with the natives of Guzerat, assisted bj a powerful force despatched 
by the pasha of Cairo. The Portuguese, besieged in the fortress of 
Diu, defended themselves with the most desperate courage ; and 
finally, when only forty-three were fit for duty, the Turkish com- 
mander, wearied by their obstinate resistance, retired. A few years 
afterwards the siege was renewed ; but after a war, protracted for 
some years, Alvaro de Castro, the governor, succeeded in entirely 
defeating and dispersing the enemy. He reentered Goa with such 
pomp that Queen Catherine remarked that he had indeed conquered 
like a Christian, but had triumphed like a pagan. 

In 1570, a far more critical contest awaited the colonies. Adel- 
Khan and Nizam-ul-Mulk, two great officers of the Mogul, united 
with the zamorin in a strong effort to expel the intruders. The 
first, with an army of an hundred thousand men, defiled through the 
Ghauts, and laid siege to Goa. The viceroy, Ataide, though com- 
manding a feeble garrison, defended the place with great bravery and 
resolution. His troops fought with their usual courage and ferocity, 
sending cart-loads of heads into the city to animate and encourage 
the inhabitants. With fresh reinforcements, the governor gained 
fresh advantages, and Adel-Khan, after several months^ withdrew, 
with a loss of twelve thousand men. 

Nizam-ul-Mulk, with an equally formidable army, had advanced 
against Chaul, an important settlement near Bombay. Andrada, 
the commander, with a force of two thousand men, defended the 
town for a month, at the end of which, a general assault took place. 
The Portuguese, defending house by house, maintained their posi- 
tion ; and after a siege of six months, during which many thousands 
of the besiegers had perished, sustained another attack with such 
bravery and determination as to compel the enemy to withdraw, 
and soon after to enter into a treaty. The Zamorin, who had also 
been engaged in hostilities at another settlement, was baffled, and 
compelled to retreat. 

By such achievements the Portuguese maintained their supremacy 
on the coasts of India during all the sixteenth century. But the 
maritime power of Holland was daily increasing; and in 1599, that 
state, which had vainly sought a passage to the East by the north 
of Asia, despatched eight ships to open a new commerce in these 
distant regions. Their success in trading on the coasts of Java and 
Sumatra, inspired the Dutch adventurers with fresh enterprise. 



INDIA. 233 

They soon completely supplanted the Portuguese in the spice trade, 
and ere long, by their mutual jealousy, became engaged in hostilities. 
Philip II., who had seized the crown of Portugal, in vain endeav- 
oured to suppress their maritime superiority, and as vainly attempted 
by proclamations to deter them from trading in the East. In 1605, 
they sent out a powerful expedition, and gained possession of the 
most important stations in the Indian Archipelago. While, how- 
ever, their admiral, Matalief, was absent on an expedition against 
Malacca, the Spaniards, from the Philippines, seized their new con- 
quests, and saluted the admiral with a warm cannonade on his 
return. He succeeded, however, in overpowering them, and massa- 
cred great numbers. 

In the same year, a Dutch expedition was sent to the beautiful 
island of Ceylon, but without much effect. The intruders, although 
supported by the native prince, did not succeed in expelling the 
Portuguese until 1656. Having gained the complete control of the 
Indian seas and islands, they founded the city of Batavia, in Java, 
and made it their Eastern capital. 

After repeated attempts, in 1640 they gained possession of Malacca, 
and thus secured still farther their numerous possessions in the 
Eastern Archipelago. They never, however, gained any extensive 
possessions on the continent of India; much of which the Portu- 
guese still retained until their contests with the English, when, as 
will be seen, they succumbed to the superior tact and energy of 
their rivals. Groa, formerly their capital, is now the only possession 
they retain of that powerful empire which they once maintained 
in a great part of India. 



CHAPTER Y. 

THE EARLY ENGLISH EXPEDITIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. THE 

EAST INDIA COIIPANY. CONTESTS WITH THE FRENCH. 

In the« reign of Elizabeth, the maritime ascendancy which Eng- 
land was destined to acquire, began first to develope its gigantic 
proportions. Eecognising at first the barbarous policy which 



234 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

assigned to tlie first discoverers exclusive possession and commerce 
in new regions, her enterprising mercliants, not to interfere witli 
tlie Portuguese and Spaniards, made unsuccessful attempts to reach 
the East by circumnavigating Asia to the northward. An overland 
traffic was also vainly undertaken ; and a succession of daring navi- 
gators made the attempt, still continued in our own day, to force the 
North-west passage around the continent of America. 

Drake, on his celebrated voyage around the world in 1579, had 
touched at the Spice islands, and met a friendly reception from the 
king of Ternate. Cavendish, following a similar course, brought 
home accounts of the wealth and beauty of these remote countries, 
and the friendliness of their inhabitants. A small expedition was 
first despatched to Goa, but the jealousy of the Portuguese pre- 
vented any successful traffic. A great part of India was, however, 
carefully explored by the enterprising Fitch, who gave more minute 
and interesting accounts of the interior than any European who 
had preceded him. 

After one or two more private expeditions, a company was formed, 
in 1600, under the title of the " Governor and Company of Merchants 
trading to the East Indies." Their charter granted them a monopoly 
of Eastern traffic, with other exclusive privileges. Captain Lancas- 
ter, who had already commanded an expedition to those parts, 
sailed, in April, 1601, with five vessels of tolerable size, with the 
intention of obtaining a cargo of spices, which were principally 
supplied by the islands of Sumatra, Java, and the Moluccas. Hav- 
ing opened the way for future commerce with the natives, he returned 
home, enriched by the plunder of a large Portuguese ship. 

A succession of small expeditions followed, which were in general 
successful, sometimes by obtaining cargoes of pepper, and some- 
times by the most audacious piracy. In 1611, Sir Henry Middleton, 
an eminent commander, proceeded with his vessels to Surat, and 
sought to effect an opening for commerce. The Portuguese fleet 
immediately commenced hostilities, but were steadfastly repulsed in 
every attempt, and met with great loss. The native authorities, 
seeing the superiority of the strangers, no longer hesitated to treat 
with them. Some commercial interchanges were effected, but the 
violence and unreasonable conduct of the English commander, who 
seized the person of the governor, was so offensive, that he was 
compelled to depart without establishing a factory. On his way 
home, he stopped all the Indian vessels which he met, and compelled 



INDIA. 



235 



them to a forcible interchange of goods, on Ms own conditions — a 
species of piracy wliicli, however, does not appear to have shocked 
the commercial etiquette of the day. By subsequent expeditions, 
however, a slight footing was obtained at Bantam and elsewhere, 
and the first adventures produced a large per-centage on the invest- 
ment, the mingled profits of trade and piracy. 

In 1614, James I., to further the national commerce with the 
East, sent out Sir Thomas Roe, as ambassador to the Great Mogul ; 
but, as has been related, little advantage was obtained. Neverthe- 
less, a regular annual intercourse was now established with the East ; 
and the Portuguese, although threatening loudly at first, were com- 
pelled to succumb to the maritime superiority of their rivals. 

The Dutch proved far more formidable adversaries. Provoked 
by the settlement of the English in islands contiguous to their own, 
they commenced a naval warfare with the rival company, in which 
the latter suffered most severely. The dispute was at last adjusted 
by a mutual compromise, in which it was agreed that the two com- 
panies should share in the trade and commerce of the Indian seas, and 
should be directed by a joint council of members from each. The 
Dutch, however, being far the more powerful in these regions, exer- 
cised much oppression towards their partners, and finally broke up the 
entire system by the cruel "massacre of Amboyna," in which, under 
real or pretended suspicion of a conspiracy, they first tortured and then 
put to death a number of English, resident in that place. Some repara- 
tion for this outrage was tardily enforced by the British government. 

The principal British factory in Continental India was for a time 
located at Surat, and considerable trade was carried on. Exposed, 
however, to the arbitrary exactions of the Mogul and to the incursions 
of the Mahrattas, they removed, in 1687, to the island of Bombay, 
which had been ceded by the Portuguese, and which has ever since 
remained the capital of their possessions in Western India. On the 
eastern coast, Masulipatan and Madraspatan became important settle- 
ments, and Fort St. Greorge, erected at the latter, became the capital 
of the British- possessions on the coast of Coromandel. 

In 1651, a physician named Boughton, having cured the daughter 
of Shah Jehan of a dangerous illness, was enabled, through the 
emperor's gratitude, to« secure to his countrymen important com- 
mercial privileges. A similar service, rendered to the nabob of 
Bengal, was rewarded in a similar manner, and a factory was erected 
at Hoogle}^, on the principal commercial channel of the Ganges. 



236 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Here was made a first and unsuccessful attempt to establisli bj 
arms the foundation of that mighty empire, wliich now controls all 
India. In 1686, a force of ten armed vessels and six companies of 
soldiers was despatched to redress certain wrongs sustained by the 
residents at the factory, and, in effect, commenced a war with the 
nabob and the Great Mogul himself The English, however, after 
performing some brilliant feats, were compelled for the present to 
evacuate Bengal entirely. Aurengzebe, the Mogul emperor, irritated 
at these and other hostilities, issued orders for a general attack on 
all the Company's factories. Surat, Masulipatan, and Vizigapatan, 
were taken, and Bombay itself was closely pressed. Only the most 
humble submission procured peace from their powerful foe, who, in 
consideration of the benefit of their commerce, allowed them 
gradually to resume their former intercourse. 

JSTevertheless, the Company, undismayed by these reverses, began 
to contemplate greater plans of conquest and pernlanent settlement. 
In 1689, instructions were issued to their agents to extend their 
acquisitions of territory, as much as possible ; and they soon acquired, 
by purchase of the native princes, several small districts, among 
which was Calcutta, afterwards destined to become the Avealthj'' 
capital of British India, Here was erected Fort William, and a 
flourishing settlement soon sprang up. The establishment proceeded 
peaceably for some time, increasing its operations until its annual 
sales amounted to two millions sterling. 

The French had in early times made a few unsuccessful attempts 
to establish an Indian colony; but it was not until the reign of 
Louis XIV., and the enlightened administration of Colbert, that any 
really effectual steps were taken for this purpose. In 1664, a French 
East India Company was formed, with many exclusive privileges, 
and after signal failures at Surat and elsewhere, succeeded in estab- 
lishing a prosperous settlement at Pondicherry. They also gained 
a footing at Chandernagore in Bengal, and some other unimportant 
places. When the war of 1744 broke out, Labourdonnais, the gov- 
ernor of Mauritius, with a small squadron, sailed for India, and 
captured the important English city of Madras. Dupleix, the able 
and ambitious governor of Pondicherry, now formed the most 
magnificent schemes for the aggrandizement* of his nation. He con- 
templated nothing less than a complete expulsion of the English, and 
finally, a French empire extending over all India. 

The nabob of Arcot, who with ten thousand men attempted to 



INDIA. 



237 



retake Madras for his allies, the English, was completely defeated 
by the small force of Frenchmen in that city ; and_ soon after was 
induced to form an alliance with Duj)leix. An exj^edition of the 
latter against Fort St, David was nnsuccessful, the English garrison 
being strongly reinforced. A powerful squadron soon arriving, 
the English besieged Pondicherry, but were in their turn repulsed. 
The peace, which shortly afterwards ensued between the two 
nations, left their Indian possessions in the same condition as 
before the war. 

Both parties, however, began to regard the native territories with 
covetous and ambitious eyes; and the English, by interfering in a 
native quarrel, gained the fortress of Devicottah. The French were 
playing for a far higher stake. Dupleix had espoused the cause of 
two powerful pretenders, one to the throne of the Deccan, and the 
other to that of the Carnatic. He despatched his officer, D'Antieul, 
to their assistance, with a small body of troops, who by their des- 
perate valour broke the lines of the enemy, and secured to the 
confederate army a complete victory. The rightful inheritor of the 
Carnatic fell, and Arcot was seized by the pretender. 

Nazir Jung, the legitimate claimant of the throne of the Deccan, 
soon after advanced against the allies with an immense army, which 
has been estimated at three hundred thousand men. He was sup- 
ported by a small force of British, who had espoused the cause of 
Mohammed Ali, son of the fallen nabob of Arcot. A mutiny 
occurred among the French officers ; their native allies were over- 
thrown, and the French troops retired to Pondicherry. D'Antieul, 
however, soon revived the war in the most daring manner, and 
gained important successes. Finally leaguing with certain discon- 
tented chiefs, the French succeeded in completely defeating Nazir 
Jung, (who perished in a mutiny of his own officers,) and in reestab- 
lishing his rival, Mirzapha Jung, on the throne of the Deccan. 

The French influence thus became paramount in all Southern 
India. One or two feeble attempts of the English in behalf of their 
ally Mohammed ended disgracefully ; and their fortunes were at a 
low ebb, when the talents and courage of the celebrated Ciive gave 
an entirely new turn to the course of events. Trichinipoly, the 
last possession of Mohammed, was closely besieged by the French 
and their native allies, when this able commander, by a bold and 
sudden movement, seized on Arcot itself. Having garrisoned the 
fort, he defended it with great bravery against an overwhelming 



238 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



force of tlie enemy, wliicli was despatclied against liim, and compelled 
tliem to raise the siege. 

By further assistance from the English, and by judicious native 
alliances, Mohammed soon found himself supported by a force of 
twenty thousand men ; and the French, vastly outnumbered in their 
turn, took refuge in the great pagoda or temple of Seringham. 
They were finally obliged to capitulate, and were made prisoners 
of war. 

Dupleix, undisheartened, used every effort to restore the French 
ascendancy. He sent a fresh expedition against Fort St. David, 
which, however, was completely defeated by Clive. The English 
themselves, in attempting to seize the strong fortress of Gingee, 
were repulsed by the French, and the latter, with their native allies, 
again laid siege to Trichinopoly, where the brave Major Lawrence 
was still in command. This siege was protracted, after much hard 
fighting, for a year and a half without any decided advantage to 
either party. 

Meanwhile, the subahdar of Deccan, who owed his exaltation 
entirely to the French, began to be tired of their control, and dis- 
banded the foreign troops; but Bussy, their commander, reassembling 
them, was enabled to dictate his own terms. Much territory on 
the coast of Coromandel was ceded to the French, making them, 
including former acquisitions, masters of a country six hundred miles 
in extent, and producing about four millions dollars of revenue. 
Dupleix, however, in the midst of his artful and ambitious career, 
was superseded in his station, and compelled to return to France. 

Commissioners were now sent out by the two governments to 
arrange an amicable settlement of the disputes between the rival 
companies. It was stipulated that each party should restore all its 
native conquests — an arrangement highly unfavourable to the French, 
who had made far greater acquisitions than their rivals. The Eng- 
lish, moreover, still continued to interfere forcibly in the quarrels 
of the native powers; and the French, nnable to resist their exam- 
ple, were soon again involved in a predatory warfare with their 
ancient antagonists. When the war of 1756 broke out between the 
two nations, the French government resolved to make a vigorous 
effort for supremacy in Indian affairs. An extensive armament was 
fitted out, and intrusted to the command of the brave and headstrong 
Count Lally, a devoted adherent to the Jacobite cause, and an invet- 
erate enemy of the English government. Landing at Pondicherry, 




THE FORTRESS OF GINGEE 



jL'his strong aud a'.most inaccessible citadel, renowned in Indian Avarfare, 
was taken from its native possessors, about the year 1750, by Bussy, the bril 
liant and intrepid commander of the French, forces, under the administration 
of Dupleix. The English soon a.fter attacking it were repulsed with much loss , 
but in a i'evr years, on occasion of the revei'ses sustained by their rivals, sue 
oeeded in gaining possession of the contested fortress 



INDIA. 



239 



in April, 1758, lie marclied without an lionr's delay against Fort St. 
David, the capital of the English settlements, took it, and razed it to 
the ground. Bussy, who retained his complete ascendancy over the 
Deccan, attacked and reduced Vizanipatan; and the two command- 
ers, joining their forces, laid siege for two months to the city of 
Madras, which was ably defended by Governor Pigot and the 
veteran Lawrence. The appearance of an English fleet, with rein- 
forcements, compelled them to retreat to Pondicherry. After three 
months of desultory warfare, Lally found himself besieged in the 
French capital, and, after a gallant defence, was compelled, in Janu- 
ary, 1761, to capitulate. The city was surrendered to Colonel Coote, 
and Lally, sailing for France, was made a victim, under an absurd 
charge of treason, to the anger and disappointment of his employers. 



CHAPTER 71, 



THE BEITISH CONQUESTS IN BENGAL. THE WARS WITH 

HYDER ALI AND WITH THE FRENCH. 

The British establishment at Bengal, though subordinate to others 
on the coast of Coromandel, was destined, from the advantages of 
its position, to become eventually the seat of general government. 
It already excited the jealousy of the native princes ; and when 
Surajah Dowlah, a fierce and capricious youth, became nabob of 
Bengal, both avarice and alarm incited him to hostility. Marching 
toward Calcutta, he plundered an English factory on the way, and 
imprisoned the occupants. He thence proceeded with furious haste 
to the capital, inflamed by exaggerated reports of the immense 
riches of the English. The feeble garrison offered an ineffectual 
resistance. Part of the residents made their escape in vessels doAvn 
the river, and the small force which remained, surrendered. The 
officers and men, an hundred and forty-six in niimber, were thrust 
forcibly into a low dungeon, only eighteen feet square, called the 
"Black Hole" — a name memorable for ail that is most terrible of 
suffering and despair. Crowded together and almost deprived of 



2-iO THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

air, in this burning climate, their struggles and anguish were fearful 
until death came to their rehef The nabob was asleep, and no one 
dared to awaken him, or to remove them without his permission. 
At about eleven in the evening thej began to die fast, and when 
their dungeon was opened in the morning, only twenty -three persons 
were alive, and these delirious or insensible. The dead bodies were 
thrown indiscriminately into a ditch. The tyrant evinced the 
utmost unconcern at the fate of his victims, and seemed only troubled 
at the small amount of his plunder. 

The government at Madras hastened to avenge these outrages, 
and at once despatched to Calcutta a naval and military force, under 
the command of Admiral Watson and Colonel Clive. The place was 
easily retaken, the garrison left there by the nabob surrendering 
almost without a blow. Surajah Dowlah, with a large force, soon 
arrived, and intrenched himself in front of Calcutta. Clive sallied 
out with a force of two thousand men, and engaged the enemy 
without much success. A treaty was then concluded, by which the 
English resumed their former stations and privileges, and relin- 
quished their revenge upon the murderer of their countrymen. 

Clive next undertook an expedition against the French, and in 
March, 1757, laid siege to their fortress at Chandernagore. The 
garrison made a brave resistance, but being exposed to a cannonade 
from the squadron of Admiral Watson, were finally compelled to 
surrender. The English commander, being advised of the secret 
hostility of the nabob, now resolved on the audacious project of 
dethroning him, and substituting some native more compliant with 
the schemes of the British. Intrigues were immediately commenced 
with the discontented chiefs in his service, and it was finally con- 
cluded to place upon the throne Meer Jaffier, his principal military 
ofl&cer, the latter promising large subsidies (it is said three millions 
of pounds) as the price of his advancement. In June, 1757, Clive, 
with only three thousand men, of whom not a third were Europeans, 
quitted Chandernagore to attempt the subversion of a powerful 
empire. The nabob, with an army nearly seventy thousand strong, 
was encamped at Plassey. At this place, on the 23d of June, the 
British attacked him, relying on the defection of Meer Jaffier, with 
the forces under his immediate command. A protracted action 
occurred before the latter cooperated with the assailants; but on 
learning his desertion, the nabob, as cowardly as cruel, mounted his 
swiftest elephant, and fled, escorted by a large body of his choicest 



INDIA. 241 

cavalry. This victory, won so easily and witli such inconsiderable 
forces, transferred, in etlect, the sovereignty of India to the British. 
Meer Jaffier was forthwith saluted nabob of Bengal, Bahar, and 
Orissa; and the defeated tyrant, being shortly after captured, was 
put to death by the equally savage Meeran, the son of Jafiier, a 
youth of seventeen, who, like another Caracalla, refused the mercy 
which his father was inclined to grant. The English received from 
the plunder of his treasury eight hundred thousand pounds, besides 
jewels to an immense amount. 

A claim was now advanced to the government of Bengal by the 
son of the Mogul, supported by two powerful native chiefs, the 
nabob of Oude, and the subahdar of Allahabad. The new sovereign, 
however, supported by the British, maintained his position, and 
Clive, after some further conquests, resigned his command, and 
returned to England with an immense fortune. 

Hostilities were soon renewed by the prince, who, on the death 
of his father, had succeeded to the title of Grreat Mogul, and who 
was assisted by a French force, under the celebrated M. Law; and 
considerable fighting, without important results, took place in 
the neighbourhood of Patna, the chief point of conflict. The rule 
of Meer Jaffier proving unsatisfactory to the British council, they 
deposed him without difficulty, and appointed his son-in-law, Meer 
Cossim, in his place. The latter, by extracting money from the 
natives, was soon enabled to pay his allies a million and a half 
sterling, the arrears due, according to agreement, for their services. 
The Mogul army, which still continued hostilities, was completely 
defeated by Major Carnac, and the brave Law, the chief reliance of 
the enemy, was taken prisoner. Peace soon followed. 

The English, feeling themselves the true masters of Bengal, were 
soon involved in a contest with their viceroy, Meer Cossim, who 
wished to govern the kingdom independently. He levied and 
disciplined troops, and soon commenced open hostilities. The 
council immediately again proclaimed Meer Jaffier as nabob, and 
Major Adams, commanding the British troops, marched against the 
refractory chief After defeating his forces at Moorshedabad, the 
British attacked Meer Cossim, who, with nearly thirty thousand 
men, was awaiting them in the plain of Geriah. The battle was 
continued for four hours, the assailants being little more than a tenth 
of the number of their adversaries. European courage and disci- 
pline finally prevailed, and Cossim, compelled to retreat from fortress 
16 



242 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

to fortress, finally cut off all hope of negotiation by tlie massacre 
of an hundred and fifty of the English stationed at Patna. This 
place, though garrisoned by a strong force, was also, after having 
SListained a cannonade for eight days, taken by storm, and the 
defeated chief took refuge with the sovereign of Oude, Sujah Dow- 
lah, who had already received the Mogul. 

These three princes, with their united forces, now marched against 
the English at Patna, and after a protracted contest, were repulsed 
by Major Carnac; but owing to the insubordination of the sepoys, 
or native troops, in his own camp, he was unable to follow up his 
advantages. In May, 1764, Major Hector Munro, who succeeded 
to the command, adopted the most fierce and vigorous measures to 
suppress the spirit of insubordination. A body of sepoj^s having left 
the camp, and been captured, he commanded twenty-four of them 
to be blown from the mouth of a cannon — a merciless proceeding, 
which completely answered his purpose. Soon after, he attacked 
Sujah Dowlah, and thoroughly defeated him, gaining possession of 
a great quantity of stores, and an hundred and thirty cannon. The 
confederation was soon entirely broken up. 

By this succession of brilliant victories, the English gained com- 
plete control over the great central plain of Hindostan. Their 
creature, Meer Jafiier, dying, they appointed his son Nujeem, a 
youth of twenty, to the nominal throne; reserving, indeed, the 
entire military force, and much of the domestic government, under 
their own control. 

In England, however, these continued wars, and the unbridled 
rapacity of all the Indian officials, excited the alarm of the com- 
pany ; and in 1765, they sent over Lord Clive, as governor, to reform 
the numerous abuses of their agents. The Mogul and Sujah 
Dowlah, who had both been defeated, repaired to the British camp, 
and learned their fate from the lips of the new governor. The latter, 
making a favourable impression on the arbiter of his destinies, was 
restored to his dominions ; the former, receiving a certain amount 
of territory, ceded, in effect, to the British, the splendid provinces 
of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa — the young sovereign, whom they 
had recently created, being compelled to retire on a pension. By 
this treaty the company gained the title to a great extent of terri- 
tory, and largely increased its revenue. 

During the late disturbances, a young adventurer, named Hyder 
Ali, had been gradually acquiring a power that was destined to be 



INDIA. 



243 



most formidable to tlie Englisli. After a youtli spent in riot and 
dissipation, lie suddenly evinced high military talent, and attracted 
to himself a numerous swarm of those depredators with whom 
India has always abounded. The pillage of this gang was so con- 
siderable, that he was soon enabled to enlist an army of six or seven 
thousand men. By the patronage of Nunjeraj, the minister and 
real master of Mysore, he was enabled to enlarge his forces still 
flirther, and soon aimed at the possession of the throne itself His 
patron was embarrassed by the discontentment of his troops; and 
Hyder, taking advantage of the opportunity, hastened to Seringapa- 
tam, seized the public property, and acquired universal popularity 
by satisfying their demands. He gained further influence by 
defending the country against a formidable invasion of the Mahrat- 
tas, and ere long was enabled, by his influence with the Mysorean 
army, to wrest the sovereign power from the hands of Nunjeraj. 

The youthful rajah of Mysore, vexed at seeing the control of his 
kingdom thus disputed and engrossed by others, now formed a plan 
for his destruction; and Hyder, taken by surprise, was compelled to 
fly, leaving all his treasures in the hands of his enemies. Having 
been defeated in an attempt to regain his position by arms, he artfully 
persuaded Nunjeraj to join him in a scheme for the recovery of 
their former power. Assembling an army, he again and again 
defeated the forces of the rajah; who, unable to withstand him, was 
again compelled to relinquish the reins of government, and to sur- 
render nearly all his revenues to the usurper. Nunjeraj, again 
deceived, obtained nothing of importance. 

Once firmly secured in the government of Mysore, Hyder com- 
menced a series of successful hostilities with the surrounding nations. 
In plundering the accumulated treasures of the capital of Bednore, 
he was said to have gained the immense sum of twelve millions 
pounds — a great assistance in his future ambitious career. He was, 
however, unable to defend his country from an immense swarm of 
the Mahratta cavalry, who, under Madoo Eao, invaded Mysore; and 
after experiencing several defeats, was compelled to purchase peace 
by cessions of territory and by the payment of thirty-two lacs of 
rupees (nearly two millions dollars). Eecovering from this disaster, 
he, in his turn, made a ferocious and successful expedition against 
Calicut. 

The other Indian states now became seriously alarmed at his 
increasing power; and a hostile alliance against him was formed 



244 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 



between Madoo Eao, the English, and jSTizam Ali, snbahdar of the 
Deccan. Hostilities were commenced by all, but the first-named 
prince was detached from the confederacy by payment of a snm 
even greater than the former; and Hyder, taking advantage of the 
Nizam's jealousy of Mohammed Ali, the ally of the English, per- 
suaded him to enter into an alliance against the latter. Colonel 
Smith, the English commander, thus deserted by his allies, was 
compelled, after repelling an attack of the enemy, to retreat to 
Trinomalee; while Tippoo ("the tiger"), the son of Hyder, a youth 
of seventeen, made a rapid incursion with five thousand horse into 
the English territory, and alarmed Madras itself. Smith, having 
been reinforced, was soon engaged with a greatly superior force by 
the allies, whose attack, however, by able generalship, he soon con- 
verted into a flight. Disheartened by this and other misfortunes, 
the Nizam was easily detached from the interests of Hyder, and in 
1768 agreed to a treaty, by which the British acquired much pecu- 
niary advantage, and full liberty to appropriate the dominions of 
their enemy. 

Of this, they took immediate advantage, b}^ prompt movements 
in several directions ; and Hyder, in a few months, was deprived of 
half his territory. He succeeded, however, in expelling the British 
forces, which, being despatched from Bombay, had taken possession 
of his western provinces; and then, finding the demands of his 
enemies too extortionate to be complied with, kept up a protracted 
warfare with the troops from Madras, and finally gained a signal 
advantage over them. Soon after, by his superior knowledge of 
the country, he surprised the British in several of their newly-con- 
quered districts, and in a few weeks, regained nearly all that he 
had lost. One detachment of the British troops was made prisoners, 
and another cut to pieces. Negotiation still failing, he made a 
daring excursion within five miles of Madras itself, and the council, in 
alarm, instantly agreed upon an armistice. Treaty was immediately 
entered into, and in April, 1769, it was agreed that both parties should 
be placed upon the same footing as before the war, and enter into a 
defensive alliance against any invaders of the territory of either. 

These brilliant successes of Hyder, however, were more than 
compensated by a fresh incursion of the Mahrattas, who, with an 
army twice as large as his own, commenced a career of alarming 
conquest and inordinate cruelty. Hyder himself, incapacitated for 
action by a fit of intoxication, saw his army completely routed and 



INDIA. 



245 



dispersed, and witli difficulty, on a fleet korse, and almost alone, 
reached his capital of Seringapatam. A harassing warfare was pro- 
tracted for a year and a half longer, when the invaders, on the payment 
of large sums and the cession of extensive territories, withdrew. 

Hyder, freed from these enemies, resolved to repair his losses, in 
some measure, by the plunder of his neighbours, and accordingly 
attacked the district of Coorg, which fell an easy prey. The bar- 
barous victor sat in state, paying a sum of money for every head 
which his soldiers brought before him, until the pile exceeded seven 
hundred. The conquest of Calicut immediately followed. 

On the death of Madoo Kao, in 1772, the monarch of Mysore was 
enabled to regain much of the territory which he had ceded to the 
Mahrattas. He met, however, with a most obstinate resistance, in 
attempting to take the citadel of Chittledroog, the fanatical defend- 
ers of which placed implicit confidence in the goddess Doorga, 
whose shrine was in their walls. Sallying out every Monday with 
incredible fury, they returned laden with the heads of the besiegers, 
as offerings to their deity; and when Hyder, by the aid of treason, 
gained possession, two thousand of these ghastly trophies were found 
piled in a pyramid before her gate. 

He had been deeply offended by the conduct of the English, who, 
contrary to treaty, had left him unsupported in his terrible contest 
with the Mahrattas. Fortune favoured his enmity in the war which, 
occasioned by the American struggle, broke out between England 
and France. The latter nation, ever eager to undermine the East- 
ern superiority of her rival, immediately formed an alliance with 
Hyder, to which he and his house, fatally for themselves in the end, 
always faithfully adhered. The British soon reduced the French 
settlements of Pondicherry and Mah6 ; but their grand enemy, while 
artfully maintaining a pacific attitude, was making great prepara- 
tions for a sudden and overwhelming blow. Early in June, 1780, 
quitting Seringapatam, Hyder Ali placed himself at the head of an 
army of eighty thousand men, and commenced a career of merci- 
less devastation in the Carnatic. The smoke of burning villages 
ascended all around Madras, which strong position he did not ven- 
ture openly to attack. A number of strongholds were taken, and 
Colonel Baillie, who, with nearly four thousand men, encountered 
the Mysore army, was utterly defeated, and saw the greater part of 
his corps massacred on the field. The lives of two hundred Euro- 
peans were saved by the French, of whom a small force was in the 



246 T^^E PEOrLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. 

rajah's service. Arcot was immediately reduced, and other strong 
phices were besieged. 

Upon the receipt of this disastrous intelligence at Calcutta, the 
governor-general* despatched Sir Ejre Coote, an officer of high 
reputation, Avith a few hundred European troops, to the scene of 
action. This general found at his disposal only seven thousand 
men, of whom scarce a fourth were Europeans; yet he at once 
advanced in pursuit of the enemy through a country which they 
had converted into a perfect desert. Though swarms of the light 
Indian cavalry hovered about them, the English Avere unable, for 
some time, to effect a general engagement. At last, encouraged by 
some successes, and by the appearance of a French fleet on the coast, 
Hyder resolved to give them battle. He had vastly the advantage, 
both in numbers and position; but the skill of the English com- 
mander, and the courage of his troops, carried all before them; and 
the defeated prince, foaming Avith rage, Avas again compelled to trust 
for safety to the fleetness of his horse. 

A second engagement, bloody but indecisive, took place at Polil- 
loor, the scene of Bailie's misfortune. Soon after, Sir Eyre Coote, 
taking the rajah by surprise, defeated him at Sholinghur, Avith a 
loss of five thousand men, and Avas thus enabled to relieve the 
important fortress of Yellore. During the continuance of this Avar, 
hostilities broke out between Britain and the Dutch, and Sir Hector 
Munro, with four thousand men, was despatched from Madras 
against Negapatam, the Indian cajDital of the enemy. Though 
strongly garrisoned, it fell before the impetuosity of the invaders. 
All the Dutch settlements on the same coast shared a similar fate, 
and even their important station of Trincomalee, in the island of 
Ceylon, was taken by their rivals. As an offset to these advantages, 
Colonel BraitliAvaite and his force of tAVO thousand men Avere 
surrounded, and after a most gallant defence, defeated and made 
prisoners by the army of Tippoo. 

* Warren Hastings, celebrated for his talents, his crimes, and his memorable trial 
(in 1786) before the House of Lords, at the impeachment of the Commons. The 
heaviest charges of cruelty, corruption, and mal-administration were urged against 
him by all the eloquence of Burke, Fox, Sheridan, and othei- distinguished orators ; the 
proof was remarkably clear; yet such was the influence of the royal favour and the 
exertions of his partisans, that, after the affiiir had been protracted for many years, 
the culprit was finally acquitted, and suffered to pnss the remainder of his days in 
comfortable obscurity. 



INDIA. 



247 



The loss of the alliance of the Mahrattas, who, by the efforts of 
Hastings, had been lately detached from the interest of liyder, was 
in some degree counterbalanced by the arrival of a French force of 
three thousand men ; yet even thus reinforced, he was defeated by 
Coote, with considerable loss, at Arnee. Very considerable advan- 
tages were also gained by his enemies on the coast of Malabar. 
Tippoo, with the French officer Lally, was advancing thither with 
a large force, when the former was unexpectedly recalled by the 
death of his father, and the necessity of immediately asserting his 
claims to the throne. 

Hyder Ali expired on the 7th of December, 1782, at the age of 
about eighty. This singular man, without even the ability to read 
or write, with a disreputable early career, and gross personal failings, 
nevertheless had become, by his talents, perseverance, and dissimu- 
lation, one of the greatest sovereigns in India. He transmitted his 
crown, his treasure, and an army of nearly ninety thousand men, to 
his son Tippoo, an enemy of the English, even more inveterate 
than himself 

Various disagreements among the British civil and military 
authorities prevented them from taking advantage of the death of 
their ancient foe. Moreover, Sir Eyre Coote, their best commander, 
only survived his old opponent for four months. Nevertheless, 
seizing the opportunity of Tippoo's movement to the west, a strong 
force, under General Stuart, was despatched against Cuddalore, at 
which place the French were principally stationed, Bussy, their 
commander, however, made an able defence, and the English lost 
upwards of a thousand men in their attack. Moreover, the French 
admiral, Suffrein, commanded the sea, and soon reinforced the 
garrison with two thousand four hundred men. The situation of 
the British had become exceedingly critical, when peace was declared 
between the two nations — an event by which the Sultan Tippoo 
lost most of his French auxiliaries. 

Meanwhile, General Mathews, who had taken the city of Bednore, 
in the west, and gained possession of great treasure, was in his turn 
compelled to surrender to Tippoo, and, with his men, subjected to a 
rigorous imprisonment. In the south, however. Colonels Lang and 
Fullerton gained most decided advantages ; and were even preparing 
to march on the capital of Seringapatam, when a treaty was again 
made, by which it was agreed that prisoners should be released, and 
each party resume its former possessions. 



248 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



CHAPTER ?n 



THE WARS WITH TIPPOO SAIB, AND THE CONQUEST OF MYSORE. 

Tippoo Saib, now tlie most powerful sovereign in India, assumed 
tlie title of padisliah or sultan, and occupied a position similar to 
that of the Great Mogul in former times. His reign was first signal- 
ized by a furious crusade in behalf of the Mahometan faith. Vast 
numbers of the Christian natives of Canara, and others cherishing a 
belief different from his own, were seized, and forcibly subjected to 
the most abhorred rite of the Moslem religion. 

The Mahrattas, now the masters of Delhi and a great part of 
India, soon began to give him as much trouble as they had his 
father. Having formed an alliance with the nizam, they resolved 
upon nothing less than a complete subversion of his empire, and a 
division of his extensive territories. With a strong force, they 
again invaded the country ; but Tippoo, who possessed a military 
genius even greater than his father's, manoeuvred so skilfully as to 
compel them to suspend operations. He took the chief fortress of 
the nizam near his boundaries, and, finally, with his whole force, 
crossed the river Toombuddra, swollen with rain, (which had hith- 
erto separated the two armies,) took the enemy by surprise, and gave 
them a serious repulse. He thus secured peace upon favourable 
terms, acquired a high military reputation, and was acknowledged 
sovereign of nearly all India south of the Toombuddra. 

Freed from this danger, he immediately recommenced the propa- 
gation of his faith by the most cruel and bigoted means. In Malabar, 
he razed to the ground a vast number of Hindoo temples, and 
compelled the unfortunate devotees to submit to the detested rite 
of circumcision. In 1789, he attacked the small kingdom of 
Travancore, at the southern extremity of India. While attempt- 
ing, however, to storm the capital, his troops, seized with a singular 
and unreasonable panic, turned and fled. Great numbers were 
trampled to death, and Tippoo barely escaped to his camp, after 
losing two thousand of his men. In the following year, however, 
he subdued and devastated the country, but soon returned to 



INDIA. 



249 



Seringapatam, alarmed by the attitude of the English, who were in. 
alliance with the injured nation. 

Lord Cornwallis, the British governor, jealous of the increasing 
power, and irritated by the aggressions of the sultan, had, indeed, 
resolved on war, and now took advantage of the attack upon his 
ally to commence hostilities. The Mahrattas and the nizam, eager 
for conquest, joined in the undertaking. In June, 1790, an attack 
upon Tippoo's dominions was commenced in several quarters by 
General Medows, and Colonels Stuart and Floyd, at first with con- 
siderable success. The latter of&cer, however, with a small force, 
was attacked by Tippoo, and sustained much loss in a disastrous 
retreat. The sultan, moving with great rapidity, again devastated 
the Carnatic, and, approaching Pondicherry, vainly sought a fresh 
alliance with the French. In January, 1791, Lord Cornwallis, in 
person, took command of the forces, and instantly commenced a 
march into the heart of the sultan's dominions. After a stubborn 
resistance, the strong fortress of Bangalore was taken by storm; 
and immediately after, the English governor was reinforced by a 
large body of the nizam's cavalr}^, utterly useless, indeed, for want 
of equipment and discipline. 

Tippoo had now gained his capital of Seringapatam, on which 
his enemies, using the greatest exertions, were advancing rapidly; 
Stimulated by the urgency of the occasion, and the exhortations of 
his harem, he resolved to give them battle on their approach ; but, 
after a long and obstinate contest, was compelled to retreat within 
the walls. The English, however, from their destitution of supplies 
and their enfeebled condition, were compelled to retreat, leaving 
behind all their artillery and other heavy equipments. 

Meantime, the forces of Tippoo had been every where defeated 
in Malabar; and General Abercrombie, after overcoming the most 
formidable obstacles, was in full march to join Lord Cornwallis, 
when he received orders to retreat, which he fulfilled with the loss 
of his artillery. The governor, with his army, was still retreating 
in a most miserable condition, when he encountered a large detach- 
ment of his Mahratta allies, under the famous chiefs Purseram Bhow 
and Hurry Punt. Thus relieved, he succeeded in reducing a num- 
ber of Tippoo's strongest fortresses, which throughout the country 
were perched on the most inaccessible cliffs. 

At length, in February, 1792, Cornwallis, with a force of about 
twenty-two thousand men, again marched on Seringapatam. On 



250 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

approacliing tlie city, tlie sultan, with, a force of about fifty t"hou.sand, 
was seen encamped in front of liis capital. In a bright moonlight, 
the British, in three divisions, moved forward to the attack. The 
sultan, after fighting bravely, was driven from his position, and sus- 
tained a loss of many thousand men, chiefly from desertion. He 
made vigorous efforts to regain the ground he had lost, but to no 
purpose. Abercrombie, with eight thousand men, was about to rein- 
force the besieging army ; the Mahrattas were in full march ; and 
it soon became evident to Tippoo that nothing but a peace, on terms 
dictated by the victors, could save his capital and his crown. Nego- 
tiations were at once commenced; and the haughty sultan was 
compelled to submit to the severest conditions. Half his territory 
was to be surrendered, a sum of four millions pounds was exacted 
from him, and his two sons were to be delivered up as bostages. 
The latter, children of eight and ten, were delivered to Lord Corn- 
wallis, and excited the admiration of the English by the propriety 
and dignity of their demeanour. The allies forthwith commenced 
sharing the territories of their enemy, and the English gained large 
and most valuable accessions, especially on the western coast. In 
1794, the conditions having all been fulfilled by Tippoo, his children 
were restored to him. 

In May, 1798, the Earl of Mornington, afterwards Marquis Welles- 
ley, arrived as governor-general. The sultan of Mysore had lately, 
with inconceivable imprudence, entertained certain French adven- 
turers from the Isle of France, who, in the fury of republicanism, 
planted a tree of liberty in his capital, founded a Jacobin club, and 
hailed their patron as Citizen Tippoo. Though ignorant of the 
meaning of these mystic novelties, he was induced, by the artful 
representations of his guests, to enter into a scheme for the conquest 
and division of all India. The goveror-general, aware of these 
intrigues, and dreading the French influence, even at this distance, 
counselled immediate hostilities; and, as a precautionary measure, 
compelled his ally, the nizam, to disband a corps of fourteen thou- 
sand men, well officered and disciplined by French adventurers. 
No satisfaction being offered by Tippoo, a force of twenty thousand 
men, one-fourth of them Europeans, was prepared for the invasion of 
Mysore. The nizam also contributed sixteen thousand, and General 
Stuart, a veteran in the wars of the East, advanced from Malabar 
with six thousand. 

Tippoo, marching with great address and activity, surprised a 



INDIA. 



251 



division under command of the latter, who was only saved from 
defeat by the superior courage and discipline of his troops. The 
sultan then hastened to oppose the main army, which was advancing 
against him from the eastern coast. His troops, however, were 
unable to resist the English in a pitched battle, and were compelled 
to retreat at Malavilly, about thirty miles from the capital, though 
without any serious loss. He then threw himself, with all his forces, 
into Seringapatam, resolved to defend it to the last extremity. By 
the 14th of April, both the eastern and western divisions of the 
British army met under its walls. Two strongly-intrenched out- 
posts were soon carried, one by Colonel Sherbrooke and the other 
by Colonel Wellesley, brother of the marquis, and afterwards known 
as the celebrated "Wellington. 

Tippoo now endeavoured once more to treat, and was informed 
that he could only obtain peace by the cession of half his remaining 
dominions, the payment of two crores of rupees (about ten millions 
dollars), and the delivery of four of his sons and as many of his 
principal chiefs, as hostages. He was in despair at these extravagant 
demands, and determined rather to die with arms in his hands than 
to become a miserable dependant on the infidel foreigners. In his 
despair, he resorted to the wildest measures which superstition could 
dictate, and, like Saul, summoned the abhorred and persecuted 
Brahmins, who, by their incantations, might furnish a ray of hope 
that fortune would yet return. All their prognostics were unfavour- 
able ; a practicable breach was soon made in the walls ; and on the 
4:th of Ma}'", 1799, a storming party of four thousand men, divided 
into two columns, was despatched to attack the fortress. They met 
with an easy victory in one quarter; in the other, where Tippoo 
commanded in person, the resistance was gallant and determined. 
The sultan, after killing a number of the enemy with his own hands, 
was slain by repeated wounds. His body was discovered among a 
heap of slain, the countenance evincing such a stern and expressive 
composure, that it was difficult to believe him dead. He was buried 
with royal honours in the splendid mausoleum of Lall Bang, erected 
by his father. 

This able and eccentric prince, so long the chief enemy of the 
English, possessed many of the virtues, as well as the bigotry and 
cruelty, which distinguished the Moslem race. His kingdom was 
found by the victors to be flourishing, highly cultivated, and appa- 
rently well governed. He was fond of literature, and left behind a 



252 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

record of the warlike transactions of his reign. His fall was occa- 
sioned hj the hostility which his persecutions had excited among 
the natives, and b}'^ the superior skill and discipline of the English, 
jealous of his power, and covetous of his dominions. 

The victors again seized a large territory, making their acquisi- 
tions extend from coast to coast. The remaining portion of the king- 
dom of Mysore was settled upon the infant heir of its ancient rajahs, 
who was drawn from obscurity, and placed upon a nominal throne. 



CHAPTEE 7HI 



THE MAHRATTA WAR. CONQUEST OF CENTRAL INDIA. 

The Mahrattas, after the humiliation of the Mogul empire, would 
have been arbiters of the destinies of India, but for the severe and 
repeated defeats which they sustained from the yet more warlike and 
enterprising Afghans. At a later period, under their celebrated 
sovereign, the peishwa Madoo Kao, they had gained great advantages 
over Hyder, and in a great degree maintained their preponderance 
on the peninsula. Serious hostilities with the English had already 
occurred, though they afterwards joined in the confederacy of Corn- 
wallis, for suppressing the dangerous power of the sultan of Mysore. 
The most brilliant exploit of the English, in these early campaigns 
with the Mahrattas, was the storming of the celebrated hill-fortress 
of Grwalior, which had been regarded as one of the most impregnable 
strongholds in Hindostan. Under the administration of Hastings, 
in 1782, a peace had been concluded. For a number of years, amity 
and alliance had prevailed; and after the fall of the unfortunate 
house of Tippoo, (which, however, the Mahratta chiefs viewed with 
alarm and jealousy,) the Marquis of Wellesley had offered them a 
share in the partitioned territory. The reigning peishwa, embar- 
rassed by the ambitious conduct of two powerful rival chiefs, 
Holkar and Sindia, had finally embraced the cause of the latter, and 
with his confederate had been defeated by the former in a terrible 
and obstinate battle, fought near his city of Poonah. He then threw 



INDIA. 



253 



himself into tlie arms of the English, who undertook to reestablish 
his supremacy, on condition of occupying a portion of his territory 
with their forces. By this treaty, which was concluded in 1802, the 
company became involved in the most severe and successful war 
which it had yet encountered. 

The governor-general took advantage of this opportunity to 
prosecute liis long-cherished schemes of conquest and aggrandize- 
ment. Powerful forces, under Generals Wellesley and Lake, were 
despatched from Mysore and Bengal, with directions to reinstate the 
peishwa, and secure a permanent footing for the British. A similar 
expedition was to be sent from Bombay, the first object being to 
secure the entire coast of India, and thus cut off all communication 
between the French and the natives. The peishwa was replaced in 
his capital without opposition, Holkar retreating before the forces 
of General Wellesley. Sindia, however, and the rajah of Berar, 
still maintaining a hostile attitude, war was immediately commenced, 
and the English commander seized on the important city of Ahmed- 
nugger. Soon after, he encountered the confederate chiefs with a force 
of fifty thousand men, on the plain of Assaye. His own command 
was less than a tenth of their number; yet, confident in the superior 
courage and discipline of his men, he attacked them without hesita- 
tion. The result justified his expectation. The native forces were 
put to flight, after a tolerably stubborn resistance, leaving twelve 
hundred men and all their artillery on the field. This event estab- 
lished the military reputation of Wellesley, afterwards destined to 
acquire renown in a far-more-celebrated scene of action. 

The chief effect of this victory was upon the minds of the natives, 
who from that hour began to deem the British arms invincible, 
and India a country already vanquished. The great city of Burhan- 
poor, and the fort of Asseerghur, considered almost impregnable, 
were soon after taken ; and a fresh defeat on the plain of Argaom 
still further dispirited the confederates and encouraged the British. 
The rajah of Berar was compelled to purchase peace by the cession 
of extensive territories to the company. 

In the central regions of Hindostan, events of still greater import- 
ance were enacted. General Lake, in August, 1803, had attacked 
and easily dispersed the large but inferior forces of Sindia, near Coel. 
The strong fortress of Alighur soon fell into his hands, and he 
thence marched at once upon Delhi, the imperial capital, where the 
Great Mogul, Shah Allum, aged and destitute, was yet permitted 



254 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

by tlie Maliratta chiefs to liold the shadow of power, A Mahratta 
army, officered by the French, was drawn up to oppose the invaders ; 
but although Lake's force of four thousand five hundred men was 
scarcely a fourth the number of the enemy, he did not hesitate to 
attack them. Enticing them from their position by a feigned retreat, 
he turned and charged them while in confusion, and speedily drove 
them from the field with a loss of three thousand in killed and 
wounded. 

Entering the city without further resistance, the British relieved 
the Great Mogul from his state of scandalous indigence and disre- 
spect, and obtained in return the sanction of a name still venerated 
throughout Hindostan. In October, the city of Agra was taken, 
and treasure to the amount of more than a million of dollars was 
divided among the troops as prize-money. A body of fourteen 
thousand men, well supplied with artillery, which still kept the field, 
was attacked by Lake, and after a brave resistance, destroyed or 
taken prisoners. Detached expeditions, which had been sent into 
Cuttack, Guzerat, and Bundelcund, were also eminently successful. 
By December, Sindia was compelled to purchase peace upon the 
most humiliating terms. A large and valuable territory on both 
sides of the Ganges, including the imperial cities of Delhi and Agra, 
was ceded to the victors. 

Holkar, who, meantime, had been cautiously watching the turn of 
events, now most imprudently resolved on war, and endeavoured 
to form a confederacy against the common enemy. Governor 
Wellesley, on the other hand, determined completely to overthrow 
the power of this formidable and hostile chief, and to divide his 
territory among the native allies. The army of Holkar, increased 
from every quarter, now amounted to sixty thousand cavalry and 
fifteen thousand infantry. He was also provided with nearly two 
hundred pieces of artillery. General Wellesley, on account of a 
famine in the Deccan, was unable to advance against him ; and Colo- 
nel Monson, who, with a few thousand men, had been left to watch 
the movements of the enemy, was compelled, in a disastrous retreat 
to Agra, before the Mahratta chief, to leave on the way his sick and 
wounded, with all the artillery and baggage. 

Holkar, eluding the advance of the British general, suddenly 
invested Delhi, which was garrisoned onlv with a small force of 
sepoys, under British officers. These, however, made such a gal- 
lant defence, that he raised the siege, and commenced a career of 



INDIA. 



255 



devastation in the newly-acquired territories of the English. A 
detachment of infantry, under General Frazer, defeated that of the 
enemy at Deeg, but with the loss of their brave commander. Lake, 
after a most rapid march, at length overtook the Mahratta cavalry, 
under Holkar, and put them to flight, with a loss of three thousand 
men. By invasion from various quarters, the Mahratta chief soon 
found himself shut out from the most of his dominions. Bhurtpore, 
the rajah of which still adhered to his cause, was resolutely attacked 
by Lake ; but after a most daring resistance, in which the forces of 
the company were repeatedly repulsed, and lost upwards of three 
thousand men, he was compelled to forego operations, and treat 
with the rajah, who ransomed his capital by the payment of twenty 
lacs of rupees (more than a million of dollars). Holkar, who had 
vainly attempted to relieve his ally, was reduced to an almost des- 
perate condition, when, by a sudden alliance, he gained the support 
and assistance of Sindia. 

This powerful chief had viewed the exploits of his former rival 
with admiration, and was determined, at whatever risk, to emulate 
them. This fresh confederacy would have produced a renewal of 
the war, but for an entire change in the policy of the British 
government, and of the company, alarmed at this continual warfare 
and the enormous expense which it entailed. The Marquis of 
Wellesley was recalled, and Marquis Cornwallis, in 1805, was sent 
to occupy his place. The latter, however, died soon after his arrival, 
and the council, acting on the pacific instructions which they had 
received from London, in November, 1805, concluded a treaty with 
Sindia, by which he gained the strong fortress of Gwalior, and 
secured other important advantages. Holkar also obtained peace 
upon terms so favourable as to leave him nearly in the same position 
as at the commencement of the late contest. 



256 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. 



uMttliXJaii XcAj 



THE PINDAEEE WAR, AND THE PINAL OYEBTHEOW OF THE 

MAHEATTAS. 

A GREAT part of India was at this time overrun by troops of 
marauders, called tlie Pindarees. Unlike tlie Mahrattas, to whose 
predatory habits their own bore a strong resemblance, they had no 
national existence or particular place of abode — being simply rob- 
bers, whose numbers gave them the formidable appearance of armies. 
Finding their temporary homes in the numerous native kingdoms, 
they were ever ready to join their leaders in any nefarious expedi- 
tion. Their aim was not the conquest, but simply the complete 
plunder of every province through which they passed, and they 
inflicted the most merciless tortures to extort treasure from their 
unhappy victims. They were the quickest and most expert riders, 
and had an almost incredible adroitness in horse-stealing. Their 
chiefs used annually to summon their forces, composed of disbanded 
soldiers and other desperate characters, on the northern bank of the 
Nerbudda; and as soon as the rivers became fordable, commenced 
a career of indiscriminate plunder and devastation. 

Another formidable gang was headed by Ameer Khan, a Mahom- 
etan chief, who had fought for Holkar, and now aimed at establishing 
an independent power. An expedition which he made in 1809, to 
gain possession of Berar, was, however, rendered ineffectual by the 
interference of Lord Minto, the English governor. 

The peishwa, who had been reinstated in his authority at Poonah, 
soon incurred, by his disaffection, the distrust of the English 
government. The latter took advantage of the violation of a safe 
conduct, to insist on his receiving eight thousand additional troops 
into his territories, assigning large revenues for their support, and 
yielding up the strong city of Ahmednugger. To these and other 
severe conditions, rendering him a mere instrument of the company, 
he was compelled to submit (June, 1817). 

In 1813, the Marquis of Hastings, an able and active commander, 
had been appointed the head of affairs in India. His talents were 



INDIA. 257 

soon called into requisition. The Gorkhas, a warlike people from 
the region of the Himmaleh, had conquered the beautiful valleys of 
Nepaul, and had extended their dominion until it comprised nearly 
all the mountainous regions of Northern India. The British, by 
their conquests, had come in contact with this formidable race, and, 
negotiation having failed to settle the title to certain disputed terri- 
tories, hostilities were speedily commenced by both parties. The 
governor-general in 1814 despatched thirty thousand men to the 
scene of action. General Gillespie, who commanded a division of 
this army, was detained on his march by the strong fortress of 
Kalunga, perched on a hill, and exceedingly difficult of access, In 
attempting to carry it by storm, he fell at the head of his column, 
which was repulsed with loss. The officer who succeeded him, with 
the aid of heavy artillery, made a similar attempt, but in vain ; and 
the natives did not evacuate their stronghold until its walls were 
battered to ruins. At the fort of Jytuk, the British, under General 
Martindale, were also repulsed; and the division marching through 
Sarun lost two detachments, which were surrounded and cut off. 

These disasters, though mortifying to the English, produced only 
increased exertions to repair them. General Ochterlony and Colonel 
Nichols soon gained decided advantages. Several important for- 
tresses and towns were taken, and Ameer Sing, the Nepaulese 
general, was compelled to quit his principal stronghold. Negotia- 
tions were then commenced, but having been broken off, the British 
again took the field in 1816, and after twice defeating the enemy, 
extorted a treaty, by which they gained all the points in dispute. 

The next object of the English governor was to repress the preda- 
tory tribes before alluded to, and to gain such a foothold in the 
native states as to secure a predominance over these marauders. 
Berar consented to receive a force despatched by the governor, who 
was thus enabled, as he supposed, to check the incursions of the 
Pindarees. Nevertheless, eluding the British forces, they crossed 
the Nerbudda wth ten thousand horsemen, and commenced plunder- 
ing actively in the company's territories. They were, however, 
repulsed in various quarters, and compelled to retreat with consid- 
erable loss. 

It was now resolved thoroughly to suppress or extirpate these 

pests of society, and in 1817 Lord Hastings put in motion by far 

the largest and most efficient army which had yet taken the field in 

India. It consisted, in all, of nearly an hundred thousand men, 

17 



258 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

wlio, commanded by tlie marquis in person, and by other eminent 
officers, marcbed from various directions to enclose and capture tbe 
wbole body of tbe Pindarees. Botb Sindia and Ameer Kban were 
compelled, however reluctantly, to assent to the project, and the 
latter was forced to disband his irregular forces. The opening of 
the campaign was retarded by the ravages of the cholera, which 
about this time extended over a great part of India. Nearly nine 
thousand of the troops and camp-followers (principally the latter) 
of the division under the immediate command of Lord Hastings 
died of this new and terrible disorder. In the course of 1818 it 
spread through all parts of India, and the army, in common with 
others exposed to its attacks, suffered severely. 

The Pindarees, seeing hostile forces approaching from all sides, 
thought only of escape, and Cheetoo, their principal leader, with 
eight thousand men, took refuge, evading the vigilance of his 
enemies, in the territory of Mewar. Kurreem, another chief, 
attempting to fly, was defeated, and his followers were completely 
dispersed. A fresh enemy now sprung up in the dominions of 
Holkar. After the death of that chief, his officers, attached to 
predatory warfare, and dreading the permanent occupation of their 
country by a British force, prepared for war. General Hislop, who 
was despatched against them, attacked their army at a great disad- 
vantage, yet, by the superiority of his troops, gained the day. The 
Mahratta army retreated, leaving their artillery and three thousand 
of their number on the field. The refractory chiefs were soon com- 
pelled to submit to terms dictated by the English. 

The Pindarees, after sustaining severe defeats in their flight from 
district to district, were finally dispersed, and most of their chiefs 
surrendered to the British. Cheetoo, the most valiant and resolute 
of their leaders, was devoured by a tiger while lurking in the forests 
of Asseerghur. 

The peishwa, Bajee Rao, who had been for some time uneasy 
under the control of his patrons, secretly resolved to throw off 
their yoke. Having disarmed suspicion by the most profound dis- 
simulation, he suddenly attacked, with a large force, the small body 
of the company's troops which had been stationed at Poonah, 
his capital. These, however, defended themselves with the most 
undaunted courage until reinforced, when the peishwa, unable to 
stand a pitched battle, was forced to retreat. For six months, 
eluding by superior swiftness the pursuit of his enemies, he ravaged 



INDIA. 259 

the Deccan ; but was finally compelled to surrender his person and 
relinquish his title, receiving in return a pension of eight lacs of 
rupees (about half a million of dollars). All his territories were 
seized by the victors. 

Similar events transpired at Nagpore, where the rajah, with an 
overwhelming force, attacked the small body of English stationed 
there, who, however, most courageously maintained their ground 
with a loss of a fourth of their number. This attempt, like that of 
the peishwa, resulted in the entire subjugation of his territory. 

After the triumphant termination of this contest with the native 
powers, no further struggle of importance occurred until 1826, when 
Bhurtpore, a strong and celebrated fortress, was attacked and taken 
by storm by Lord Combermere, with a force of twenty-five thousand 
men. This expedition, , undertaken for the purpose of reinstating 
an excluded prince on the throne, had the effect of more thoroughly 
awing the native potentates, and of confirming the supremacy which 
Britain had already acquired over all Hindostan. 

The administration of Lord William Bentinck, who shortly after 
succeeded to the head of the Indian government, was distinguished 
by his attempts to ameliorate the condition of the vast masses of 
Hindoos who were directly under the British authority. The hor- 
rible suttees^ or burning of widows, were suppressed, and various 
flagrant abuses were corrected. Since the year 1835, the English 
government in India has been engaged in repeated and sometimes 
disastrous conflicts, especially with the warlike nations of the west. 
The wars with Afghanistan and Sinde, resulting in the evacuation 
of the former, and the annexation of the latter, have been the 
principal events of military importance. 



260 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



THE RELIGION, CUSTOMS, INDUSTRY, AND CHARACTER OE 
THE HINDOOS. 

Brama, YiSHJsru, and Siva, are tlie three most venerated divinities 
of the native inhabitants of India. The attributes of creation and 
preservation are ascribed to them, and their origin and adventures 
are described in the wildest flights of mythological fancy. Doorga, 
their chief female deity, the goddess of battle and destruction, is 
one of the most popular and idolized divinities of India. Her image 
is represented as adorned with a necklace of skulls, and two dead 
bodies hang as pendants from her ears. Besides the usual simple 
offerings of the vegetable kingdom, her altars flow with the blood 
of animals, as anciently with that of human beings. A great num- 
ber of minor deities are held in veneration — Indra, the king of 
heaven ; Surya, the deified sun ; Agnee, the god of fire ; Pavana, 
of the winds ; and Yaruna, of the waters. 

Their rivers have been held sacred from the remotest times, and 
to die on the banks of the holy Granges, is considered the surest 
passport to the joys of Paradise. Long pilgrimages are performed 
for the purpose of bathing in its waters, and infants are consigned 
to them for the purpose of sectiring their future felicity. In the 
courts of Bengal, witnesses are sworn upon a portion of its waters 
as the surest incentive to truthful evidence. The brute creation, 
especially the cow and the monkey, have their ardent and constant 
worshippers. 

The belief in the transmigration of souls is extensively enter- 
tained, and is supposed to be the instrument of retribution in 
another life ; the virtuous attaining higher rank and caste in their 
next existence, while the vicious suifer lower degradation, and even 
inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus the pillager of grain becomes 
a rat, and he who steals fruit is metamorphosed into ^.n ape. The 
Hindoo continually supposes that he beholds in some suffering ani- 
mal a degraded human soul, expiating its sins, and receiving their 
appropriate punishment. 

The idea of a heaven and a hell are also prevalent; the one 



INDIA. 



261 



resembling in its voluptuous and sensual enjoyments tlie Mahometan 
paradise, and tlie other rendered terrible by the most imaginative 
retributory tortures. The cruel are tormented hj serpents ; the drunk- 
ard is immersed in liquid fire ; and the licentious embraced by an 
image of red hot iron. 

Their temples, especially those erected or excavated in ancient 
times, present the grandest ideas of barbarous magnificence. At 
Elephanta and Kenneri, whole hills have been formed into subter- 
ranean temples and dwellings, adorned with colossal emblematic 
images. Their pagodas are generally of a pyramidal form, composed 
of numerous stories, and strikingly reminding the beholder of the 
popular idea of the Tower of Babel. Those of Tanjore, Patun, and 
Kotah, are among the most remarkable. The edifices erected in 
modern times are generally far inferior, being adapted to the 
diminished means of their worshippers, and barely affording accom- 
modation to the gaudy and hideous idols which they protect. The 
rites and praises offered before them are as absurd and meaningless 
as the divinities themselves. 

The penances and self-torture of the Hindoo devotees, sustained 
by a strange fanaticism, and the hope of fature felicity, are almost 
incredible. No race of men seems gifted with such fortitude and 
passive endurance. Like their forefathers, in the time of Alexander, 
they will remain exposed to a burning sun, and to every vicissitude 
of weather, in such constrained and unnatural positions that their 
limbs grow into helpless distortion. A traveller was astonished, on 
his return to India, after an absence of sixteen years, to find one of 
these unhappy beings retaining the same posture in which he had 
left him. At the grand festival of Juggernaut, in Orissa, vast num- 
bers flock from all directions to the scene, and many perish from 
want and fatigue. The gigantic idol, on a monstrous car, is drag- 
ged from his temple by the assembled multitude, and it has been a 
common scene for his blinded devotees to fling themselves beneath 
the ponderous wheels, and seal their faith with their destruction. 

The suttees^ or immolation of widows on the funeral-piles of their 
husbands, were practised to a fearful extent, until suppressed by the 
British government. At one place thirty-seven women, the wives 
of a deceased Brahmin, voluntarily underwent this terrible fate* 
and in Marwar, on the death of the prince Ajit, fifty-eight of his 
favourite wives threw themselves into a mighty pile, and were con- 
sumed together. Sometimes the unfortunate victim, at the latest 



262 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

moment, would gladly have witiidrawn from the dreadful fate ; in 
which, case, force was not unfrequently resorted to, to secure a 
reluctant martyrdom. 

Infanticides were also deplorably common, the unfortunate children 
being left to their fate afloat on some sacred river, or suspended 
in baskets to perish by birds of prey. 

The division into castes, or distinct classes, has been, from the 
remotest ages, peculiar to the people of India. The highest and most 
sacred race is that of the Brahmins, who are supposed to be entitled 
to peculiar veneration, both in this world and the next. Their per- 
sons are considered eminently sacred and inviolable. The Cshay- 
tryas, or military class, rank next, and the Yaisyas, or men of 
business, are the third in respect. Last come the Sudras, or labourers, 
whose condition is that of unremitting servitude and obedience. 
Their employments are invariably transmitted from father to son. 
In the southern part of India, is found a yet more miserable and 
degraded class, called the Pariahs, or outcasts, who are held in the 
most utter contempt, and employed only in the meanest services. 
They are compelled to herd together without the walls of the cities, 
lest the purer castes should become contaminated by their touch. 

The character of the Hindoo race, in such an extended region, 
naturally varies widely ; but the people are in general distinguished 
by their temperance and abstemiousness in living, and by the gen- 
tleness and docility of their dispositions. The national tendency to 
craft and deceit, of which they have been accused, seems but a 
natural consequence of the long-continued servitude to which they 
have been subjected by their Mahometan conquerors, and latterly, 
to some extent, by their British masters. Such, it is said, is their 
disregard of the obligations of an oath, that native testimony is 
almost entirely unreliable where there is any temptation to pervert 
the truth. 

The literature of the Hindoos, so long locked up in their Sanscrit, 
or sacred language, and known only to the priests, was first intro- 
duced to the knowledge of Europe by the exertions of Sir William 
Jones and other eminent oriental scholars. The Vedas, the most 
sacred and ancient books in the language, consist of voluminous 
writings in verse, principally of a religious and philosophical nature. 
A very pure and enlightened idea of the Supreme Being is conveyed 
in some portions of these remarkable works. The following passage 
is deeply revered by the religious natives: 



INDIA. 263 

"Let us adore the supremacy of that divine sun, the god-head, who illuminates 
all, who recreates all, from whom all proceed, to whom all must return, whom we 
invoke to direct our understandings aright in our progress towards his holy seat. 

"What the light and sun are to this visible world, that are the Supreme Good and 
Truth to the intellectual and invisible universe; and as our corporeal eyes have a 
distinct perception of objects enlightened by the sun, thus our souls acquire certain 
knowledge by meditating on the light of truth which emanates from the Being of 
beings; that is the light by which alone our minds can be directed in the path to 
beatitude. 

"Without hand or foot, he runs rapidly, and grasps firmly; without eyes, he sees; 
without ears, he hears all; he knows whatever can be known; but there is none who 
knows him. Him the wise call the great Supreme Pervading Spirit." 

Witli such, sublime and elevated views of the divine nature, the 
Indian mythology mixes all that is wild, absurd, and degrading. 
The other celebrated works of the ancient Hindoos are the Puranas, 
the Mahabarat, and the Ramayana — a species of confused epics, in 
which (doubtless with some original foundation of authenticity) the 
adventures of celestial beings, heroes and demi-gods are detailed at 
great and sometimes wearisome length. The poetry of these singu- 
lar productions is often of a high and deeply-imaginative character. 
Dramas and love poems of considerable merit, likewise abound. 
Since the intercourse with Europeans has become peacefully estab- 
lished, considerable attention has been paid by the educated Hindoos 
to British literature. Many of the best works of the English 
language have been translated into the native tongues, and works 
of merit have been composed in the English by native authors. A 
newspaper, advocating liberal and enlightened sentiments, has also 
been established. 

Although great and persevering efforts have been made for the 
conversion to Christianity of the numerous native races in India, the 
results have been less encouraging to missionary zeal than in many 
other fields of operation. The Baptist missionaries, who at the close 
of the last century commenced their pious labours, displayed the 
greatest ardour and perseverance in their self-allotted undertaking. 
In 1801, they published the New Testament in Bengalee, and have 
since circulated the Scripture, translated into twenty-four native 
dialects, which are vernacular to more than a hundred millions of 
the native population. The London, and the Church Missionary 
Societies have also been extremely active and industrious in estab- 
lishing schools and churches, and especially in preparing for the 
conversion of the generation which is to succeed the present. 



264 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. 

This latter project appears to offer the most rational prospect of 
an J extensive change in the belief of the inhabitants; the aaults 
being so wedded to their system of caMes and their ancient usages, 
that the instances of conversion have been extremely rare. The 
more fanatical among them have even organized societies (modelled 
on those of the European missionaries) for the restoration of their 
venerated suttees, and other revolting rites of Hindoo superstition. 
Great blame, and perhaps justly, has been laid upon the East India 
Company for sanctioning, by its authority, the pagan ceremonies of 
their superstitious subjects. It has been customary with the of&cials 
of government to levy taxes upon the pilgrims to the various shrines, 
to pay the salaries of the officiating priests and Brahmins, to keep 
the temples in repair, and to put the balance into their own treastiry. 
It has been charged, that in this way, in seventeen years, they drew 
a sum of one million pounds from the four principal temples of 
Juggernaut, Allahabad, Gaj^a, and Tripetty. Whatever may be 
alleged in regard to preservation of order and the suppression of 
worse excesses effected by such a system, it seems evident enoiigh 
that this large revenue, so disgracefully obtained, has been the prin- 
cipal motive with a Christian government in thus extending its 
countenance and patronage to a system of puerile idolatry. 

Although, for many ages, the idea of boundless wealth has been 
connected with the fertile regions of India, yet the great body of 
the inhabitants, owing to their immense number and their condition 
of subjection, are in a state of much depression and poverty. So 
little are they in advance of a state of necessity, that a failure of 
the periodical rains, on which the crops are dependant, at times occa- 
sions the most terrible results. By such an event, which occurred 
in Bengal in 1770, several millions of the unfortunate inhabitants 
are supposed to have perished of actual famine. 

The principal production and almost the exclusive food of the 
labouring classes is rice, of which two crops can be raised in a single 
year. Cotton, which is largely raised, and which forms the entire 
clothing of the great mass of the people, is very inferior in quality 
to that of America, and is worth little for exportation. Strenuous 
attempts have been made by the British government to naturalize 
the superior species, and improve its cultivation, but with question- 
able success ; and it seems probable that the vast manufactures of 
this article in England will for ever remain dependant on the supply 
from the southern states of America. 



INDIA. 265 

Opium, the most seductive and baneful production of the whole 
East, is extensively prepared, and as extensively consumed, both in 
India and the adjoining regions, to the immeasurable detriment of 
its unfortunate devotees. Silk, though of inferior quality, is pro- 
duced largely, especially in Bengal. Sugar, which, probably from 
deficient culture, is unable to compete with the products of the 
West Indies, is raised to a considerable extent, and might, it is sup- 
posed, by the employment of proper means, easily supply the whole 
British empire. Tobacco, from the time of its introduction, has 
always been largely produced and consumed — the fragrant and 
soothing influence of the pipe being particularly adapted to the 
indolence and apathy of the inhabitants of this tropical clime. 

The most important article of culture, indigo, is of comparatively 
recent introduction, and owes its present importance entirely to the 
enterprise and capital of Europeans. Immense quantities are 
exported, and all Europe is largely supplied from this source. Pep- 
per and other spices are extensively produced. 

Manufactures and the mechanic arts, though conducted with much 
pains-taking industry, are in general, almost entirely destitute of 
those advantages' which capital and machinery so immensely confer. 
The artisan, with rude and indifferent instruments, labours singly 
and unassisted, with patient perseverance. In this way are produced 
the most delicate Indian muslins, the finest silks and calicoes, and 
the splendid and high-priced shawls of Cashmere. In consequence, 
however, of the increased skill of European manufacturers and the 
cheapness of their wares, the demands for these beautiful fabrics 
has not increased like that for other luxuries, though extensive 
importations are still made. The monopoly of traffic, which the 
East India Company so long maintained, has been finally suppressed; 
and the enterprise and competition of private merchants have proved 
far more efficacious for advancing the interests of commerce than 
the cumbrous and unwieldy system of the company. 

The British residents in India, though holding complete control 
of the government, and transacting all business of importance, 
whether military, judicial, or commercial, regard their sojourn 
generally as a species of exile, and devote themselves eagerly to 
acquiring the means of independence, to be enjoyed on their return 
to their own country. Their manner of life, indeed, usually becomes 
strongly tinctured with oriental feelings and habits. Troops of 
native servants, high-spiced Indian dishes, and the continual use of 



266 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the hooJcah, or water-pipe, become, witli many of them, almost neces- 
saries of life. At tlie principal capitals, and especially at Calcutta, 
tlie ofdcials and other wealthy residents maintain a state of extreme 
splendour and luxury. In the latter city, the quarter called Chou- 
ringhee is described as a village of palaces — contrasting strongly 
with the low and squalid habitations of the "Black Town," or 
district allotted to the native population. 

The most exciting and manly amusement of the Europeans is the 
chase, in which many, especially the military of&cers, engage with 
the most adventurous ardour. The elephant, the royal tiger, and 
other magnificent denizens of the forest and jungle, offer the most 
attractive and dangerous sport to the courageous hunter. These 
sports are attended with much risk, not only from the ferocious 
nature of the game, but from the burning and tropical sun to which 
the huntsman is necessarily exposed. 

The population of India, over nearly all of which the British 
influence is now paramount, amounts to the enormous number of 
an hundred and forty millions. "Man in those regions is a weed," 
says a well-known philosophical writer; and, indeed, if over- 
whelming number, combined with ignorance, political weakness, 
and individual unimportance, is meant, the simile is true enough. 
That this gentle, kindl}^, and somewhat intellectual race may be 
redeemed from their present degraded condition, and advance in 
true religion, civilization, and freedom, must be the wish of every 
philanthropic mind. 



CHINA. 



uxicniiriiuil, i 



NATIYE HISTORY OF THE CHINESE. 

In considering the geograpliy, the history, and the national charac- 
teristics of this immense empire, we are alike struck by the childish 
credulity with which the European nations, for many ages, enter- 
tained the most absurd and fabulous accounts concerning them, and 
the utter disbelief which accompanied the publication of their first 
authentic description by Marco Paolo, and other early travellers. 
Although these writers were, without doubt, guilty of numerous 
exaggerations — the more pardonable when we reflect upon the con- 
tinual surprise and astonishment with which their own minds must 
have been impressed at the new and strange scenes constantly unfold- 
ing before them — and although their strange misapprehensions will 
occasionally excite a smile, yet, in the more essential particulars, 
the China which they describe is the China of the present day. 
Throughout all the mighty revolutions of the West; during all the 
vast changes in the physical and moral condition of the people of 
Europe; the perfection of the higher arts; the lapse to barbarism, 
with the rule of brute force, and the almost total destruction of 
learning and refinement; and during the revival of forgotten sci- 
ences, and their wonderful modern extension, the inhabitants of 
China have remained the same. As far in advance of the rest of 
the world a thousand years since, as they now are behind it, in 
knowledge and policy, they still pursue the customs of their fore- 
fathers, and manifest the same untiring industry, the same deficiency 
of invention, and the same puerile fancies which distinguished them 
in the earliest period of their history, of which we have any authen- 
tic account. 



268 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

In a country of sucli extent there must, of necessity, be a great 
variety of climate and productions. At the southern extremity, lying 
within the tropics, and near twenty degrees north latitude, a 
degree of heat is experienced in the summer months, correspond- 
ing to that of the western hemisphere in the same latitude. The 
country, from its position on the eastern shore of a large continent, 
is necessarily subjected to great extremes of heat and cold, at the 
different seasons of the year. In the northern parts, the winters 
must be nearly equal in severity to those of New England. The 
surface of the country, although hilly and varied, is, for the most 
part, within the reach of cultivation, which is carried to an extent 
unknown in any other portion of the globe, except, perhaps, in 
some of the most populous districts of Europe. It is only by the 
most assiduous improvement of every available spot of land, for 
the purpose of agriculture, that the teeming population of this vast 
region could, by possibility, be supported. 

The manners and customs of the Chinese, so strongly contrasted 
with those of other nations, offer an extensive and interesting field 
for observation and inquiry, but our limits compel us to pass from 
these to the drier details of their political history. Anterior to the 
time of Confucius, the greatest of their philosophers and writers, 
who flourished about five hundred years before the Christian era, 
the legends of the historians of China are, in the highest degree, 
wild and extravagant. They extend through a period of several 
thousand years; from the time of Puon-koo, with his covering of 
leaves; of Eohy, Shin-Noong, and Hoang-ty, the "three emperors," 
to whom were ascribed the invention of most of the arts and orna- 
mental sciences; and through the long reigns of their numberless 
successors, graced with fantastic titles and varied attributes. During 
the reign of Shun, the last of "the five sovereigns" who immedi- 
ately succeeded Hoang-ty, a great flood is recorded to have occurred, 
which is supposed by many to have been the same with the univer- 
sal deluge described by Moses. Yery few of the tales concerning 
these early monarchs bear any marks of having a foundation in 
truth, and must be classed by the modern historian with the stories 
of Theseus and Hercules, or the wild traditions of savage nations. 
In many instances, doubtless, the name of some renowned chief, with 
his most famous exploits, may have come down to us little altered 
beyond a slight exaggeration from the poet or story-teller ; but M^e 
have no criterion whereby to distinguish the true from the fictitious. 



ll I ill 




CHINA. 269 

Confucius lived in the same age with Pythagoras, and, consider- 
ing the inferiority of his opportunities for literary acquirements, is, 
doubtless, deserving of equal celebrity with that great philosopher. 
The effect of his political disquisitions and theological essays is still 
to be seen throughout the empire, and his historical compilations 
contain nearly all that is now known of Chinese government and 
progress before his day. After his death, the country, divided as it 
was into numerous principalities or petty kingdoms, was convulsed 
by civil wars, until their final union in one empire, and the estab- 
lishment of a common government, Chy-hoang-ty appears to have 
been the first emperor, and in his reign was erected that stupendous 
monument of enterprise and perseverance, the great wall of China. 
The design of this undertaking was to afford some protection to the 
peaceable subjects of the emperor, against the frequent attacks of 
the wild and roving hordes of Tartary. The whole extent of the 
wall is not far from fifteen hundred miles, traversing high mountains 
and rivers of considerable size. Its height, though not perfectly 
uniform through its whole length, is, on an average, from twenty to 
thirty feet, and it is of sufficient breadth upon the top for several 
horsemen to ride abreast. Strong towers occur at short intervals, 
and on the summit of the wall the roadway is flanked by a low para- 
pet. The work appears externally to be a mass of solid masonry, but 
in reality it consists of an embankment of earth, enclosed between firm 
walls of stone, slightly inclining inward, to afford greater strength and 
durability. It is said that this fortification is carried, unbroken, over 
almost inaccessible cliffs and precipices, where the efforts of cavalry 
to efiect a passage would be of no avail, even without this precaution. 
It has been, like the pyramids of Ghizeh, the wonder and admira- 
tion of all ages, and in like manner appears to have totally failed in 
effectuating the purpose of its founder. None can tell, with certainty, 
even the names of the vain-glorious potentates whose mausoleums, 
erected at such inconceivable expense and toil, are scattered over 
the Egyptian desert; and the mighty work, which we have here 
described, proved, in equal measure, a monument of useless labour. 
The reign of its constructor was rendered infamous by his futile 
attempt to destroy the writings of Confucius and other learned 
authors, who had flourished under the patronage of his predecessors. 
What were his motives for this piece of barbarism, does not dis- 
tinctly appear ; perhaps, as has been asserted, he was simply actuated 
by jealousy of the fame of others; but that his orders were enforced 



270 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

witli rigour and ferocity is plain from tlie fact, that hundreds were 
put to death for concealing the proscribed volumes. 

About two hundred years before Christ, under the dynasty of 
Han, the predatory incursions of the Tartars, unrestrained by the 
wall of protection, built by Chy-hoang-ty, had become such a con- 
stant source of terror and disquiet, that, to propitiate them, the 
emperors of China were in the habit of giving their daughters in 
marriage to the chiefs of the invaders. By this means, and by the 
paji^ment of heavy tribute, a separate existence was maintained for 
a great length of time. 

For several centuries after the Han race had ceased to fill the 
throne, little of interest presents itself in the political history of 
the country. A long series of wars and intestine disturbances dis- 
tracted the empire, until the accession of Tae-tsoong, the second 
emperor of the house of Tang. It was during his reign that Chris- 
tians appear, for the first time, to have penetrated into China. They 
are described as "foreigners, having fair hair and blue eyes." This 
was in the year A. D. 640, or about that period; and the truth of 
the narrative seems to have been corroborated by the discovery, at 
a time long subsequent, of a monument, marked with a cross, and 
inscribed with Christian doctrines and the names of certain preach- 
ers. The date of this inscription corresponded with the period at 
which these foreigners are said to have arrived. 

The peace of the court, under this dynasty, was disturbed in the 
most singular manner by the intrigues and plots of the eunuch 
attendants and courtiers, who had been first introduced by Ho-ty, the 
seventeenth emperor of the Han race, as early as the year 95. They 
retained their power and influence until the time of the last of the 
Tang emperors, who was himself murdered by the agent whom he 
had employed for their destruction. 

For more than fifty years thereafter, and until the final establish- 
ment of a despotic and even feudal government, the conflicts among 
various claimants of the throne created anarchy and confusion 
throughout the empire. The Tartars, no longer efiiciently repelled, 
renewed their devastations, and harassed and laid waste the country 
upon its western border. 

At this disturbed and unsettled period, and among a people thus 
distracted by the tumult of civil wars and the continual attacks of 
a barbarous enemy, an art had its origin, which was destined to 
effect a greater change in the condition of the world, than any which 



CHINA. 271 

ever before or since has emanated from tlie mind of man. In the 
tenth century, while the inhabitants of the now enlightened states 
of Europe were in the lowest state of ignorance and vassalage, the 
patient and laborious Chinese had brought into general use the 
art of printing from engraved blocks. Five hundred years later, it 
was introduced into Europe — a. length of time which sufficiently 
marks an almost entire non-intercourse between China and other 
nations. In the year A. D. 950, Tae-tsoo, the first of the Soong 
family, obtained the imperial power by the support of a number of 
military chiefs. Under his rule, and that of his successors, books 
were greatly multiplied; and from this period, the annals of the 
country become fuller and more worthy of belief. 

The Eastern Tartars, known as "the Kin," although long pro- 
pitiated by an annual payment of silk and money, finally took 
advantage of the effeminacy of Wei-tsoong, the then reigning empe- 
ror, to overrun and take possession of a large part of Northern 
China, or Kathai, It seems probable that they would, at this time, 
have conquered the whole country, had not the Chinese called in 
the assistance of the Mongols, who were inhabitants of Southern 
and Western Tartary, The armies of this powerful nation, which, 
before this period, had made extensive conquests in the south of 
Asia, now poured into the northern provinces, expelling the first 
invaders, and easily making themselves masters both of the Chinese 
and such of the Kin as remained within their limits. This event 
occurred in the year 1234. 

Kublai Khan, the great leader of the Mongols, established his 
court at Pekin. After the discomfiture of the Chinese army, and 
the destruction of the royal family, he employed himself in over- 
turning the religion of the country, and substituting that of Budd- 
hism. This system, with its worship of the Grand Lama, was far 
from acceptable to the native inhabitants, but exterior compliance 
with it was strictly enforced ; the books of the old religion being 
ordered, as usual, to be burned. 

Partly for the purpose of enriching the dry and parched plains 
in the vicinity of his capital, and partly to ensure a convenient 
method of transportation to the sea, Kublai Khan ordered the con- 
struction of the Grand Canal, which extends for a great distance 
through the most fertile and populous portions of China. 

In consequence of the degeneracy and weakness of his suc- 
cessors, the power of the Mongols came to an end in less than a 



272 THE PEOPLE'SBOOK OF HISTOEY. 

hundred years from tlie time of his accession. A successful revolt, 
headed by the servant of an association of Buddhist priests, ended in 
the entire overthrow of the Tartar government, and in the estabhsh- 
ment upon the throne of the victorious leader. 

He organized his court at ISTanking, taking the title of Tae-tsoo, 
"great ancestor." Tae-tsoo was the founder of the Ming dynasty, 
and it was during his reign, and that of his successors, that a regular 
communication was first opened between the coast of China and the 
maritime nations of Europe. The Portuguese then formed a settle- 
ment at Macao ; and the zealous Jesuits, with their usual intelligence, 
courage, and artful policy, gained no small ascendancy among the 
natives. They also obtained a vast amount of information concerning 
the national customs and history. 

In the reign of one of the Ming princes, the celebrated Timiir or 
Tamerlane projected an expedition against China, and actually took 
up his march for the purpose of effecting its conquest; but died 
on his way thither, in the year A. D. 1405. 

The Mongol successors of Kublai Khan, on their expulsion from 
China, took up their abode with the Kin, or Eastern Tartars, and, 
intermarrying with the nobility of that country, retained much of 
their power and influence. The descendants of this mixed race 
afterwards obtained and still hold possession of the throne of China. 
The name of the region inhabited by the Kin had been changed to 
Manchow, which title was applied to the princes who derive their 
origin from this amalgamation. 

The Manchows, under Tien-Ming, having attacked China, succeeded 
(after a war of many years) in dethroning the last of the Ming 
emperors. This unfortunate monarch, when he saw himself finally 
overpowered, put an end to his own life, that he might not fall into 
the hands of his enemies. The immediate cause of his downfall 
was an extensive revolt within his own dominions ; but the success- 
ful leader of the rebels was prevented, by the intervention of the 
Manchow king, from enjoying the fruits of his treason. 

The new invader, by force and artful management, secured to 
himself the imperial throne, and, dying shortly after, left it to his 
son Shunchy, in 1644. 

At this period the degradation and subjection of the unhappy 
natives was completed: the customs of tonsure and the braided queue, 
which are associated with all our ideas of a Chinese, were now, for 
the first time, introduced and strictly enforced. The ancient attire 



CHINA. 



273 



and tlie thick flowing locks, upon whick tkey formerly prided tkem- 
selves, are now to be seen only in their theatrical representations. 

The authority of the Tartar emperors was long resisted by the 
inhabitants of the south of China, and by a large naval force, under 
the command of Ching-she-loong, father of the celebrated Kos- 
hiuga. The emperor Shunchy succeeded, by heavy bribes and the 
proffer of titles, in enticing Ching-she-loong to espouse his cause, 
and to remove to Pekin ; but the son was incorruptible, and long 
continued to harass and plunder the cities on the sea-coast, which 
had succumbed to the Tartar power. The only method by which 
Shunchy was finally enabled to terminate his successful career, and 
to reduce him to terms, was an edict that all the inhabitants of the 
coast should retire so far into the interior as to be beyond reach of 
the incursions of his maritime foe. This order was forcibly carried 
out, and the country being thus laid waste, and offering neither 
booty nor support to his armament, the naval commander was 
induced to give up his possessions already acquired, and to take 
ofiice under the established dynasty. 

The Manchow emperors strove to maintain an active and military 
spirit in their nobility and soldiery, by a yearly expedition beyond 
the wall, with a great force, well-armed and equipped. This "hunt- 
ing excursion," for so it was termed, has of late years fallen much 
into disuse, the descendants of those who introduced it having 
contracted the effeminate habits of the country of their adoption. 

During the sixty years' reign of Kang-hy, the Catholic missiona- 
ries had met with much tolerance and favour, and a knowledge of 
Chinese history and manners had, by their means, been extensively 
diffused in Europe ; but their own imprudence drew upon them the 
violent animosity of his successor, Yoong-ching. The priests had, 
in the most impolitic manner, resisted the constituted authorities, and 
disgraced their cause by continual bickering among themselves, and 
Yoong-ching finally determined to expel them from his dominions. 
A few were suffered to remain in Pekin, but the greater part were 
collected at Macao, and ordered to depart by the first opportunity. 
The good policy and intelligence of the Jesuits caused an exception 
in their favour, but the Catholic mission, in general, has never 
recovered from the blow. 

Kien-loong, the next emperor, commenced his reign in 1736, and 
occupied the throne for sixty years of almost uninterrupted peace 
and prosperity. He was himself a poet, and a great patron of learn- 
18 



274 I'HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

ing and the sciences. It was at his court that Lord Macartney, the 
first ambassador from England to China, made his appearance, and 
was received with much respect and consideration. 

This monarch committed the active administration of affairs, in 
his latter days, to his son Kea-king, who, at his father's death, suc- 
ceeded to the supreme authority. His intemperance and profligacy 
drew upon him a merited rebuke from the wise and upright Soong- 
tajin, a friend and guide of the British ambassador. 

Taou-kuang, or Tau-kwang ("lustre of reason"), the late emperor, 
who died, or, as the Chinese reporter expresses it, "departed upon the 
great journey, and mounted upward on the dragon, to be a guest 
on high," on the 25th of February, 1850, was second son of Kea-king, 
and was selected by his father, in preference to the elder, on account 
of his having taken an active part in protecting him against certain 
assassins. The reign of Tau-kwang was marked by many domestic 
disturbances and outbreaks, and his conduct, in the suppression of 
these rebellions, has been justly condemned as displaying extreme 
duplicity and bad faith. We may cite, as an instance of this, the 
murder of Prince Jehangir, a Tartar of the Mahometan faith, not- 
withstanding the assurances of protection, in consequence of which 
he had imprudently delivered himself up to the Chinese authority. 

The inhabitants of the mountain districts of South-western China, 
who have always maintained a certain independence, gave much 
trouble during this reign by their revolts and insubordination, and 
have never been effectually reduced to submission. 

Societies and associations also exist in other parts of the empire 
whose purposes are hostile to the continuance of the Manchow 
dynasty. 

Nothing connected with the Chinese empire, under the govern- 
ment of Tau-Kwang, excited so great an interest throughout the 
world as the war with Great Britain; a war, whether we consider 
its object on the part of the English, or the terms upon which it was 
finally concluded, hardly worthy of an enlightened and magnani- 
mous nation. 

Among the various grievances alleged by the British government 
as the grounds of their declaration of hostilities, none appear to be 
of any great importance, except a restriction imposed by the Chinese 
authorities upon the importation of opium. No national right is 
more universally conceded or practised than that of regulating 
importations, either by onerous duties or by direct and entire pro- 



CHINA. 275 

Hbitory enactments; but for no other cause tlian tlie use of this 
right, and the employment of the means necessary to enforce it, war 
was declared against China; her sea-ports blockaded; her fortresses 
dismantled, her naval armament destroyed ; and peace in the end only 
accorded upon the payment of an enormous sum in money, and the sur- 
render of her rightful claims concerning the question in controversy. 
Upon the death of Tau-kwang, which is reported to have been 
the result of over-fatigue at the obsequies of a member of the royal 
family, his only son, Sze-hing, a youth of nineteen, took the throne, 
and is the present reigning emperor. He was regularly nominated 
or appointed by his father, according to the prescriptive custom of the 
Chinese sovereigns. He had three elder brothers, who all died before 
the decease of their father. From the known character of Keying, 
the chief guardian of the young monarch, who has heretofore held 
high office at Canton, and whose occupation has brought him contin- 
ually in contact with foreigners from all nations, it is anticipated 
that the jealous and restrictive policy of China, respecting her inter- 
course with the rest of the world, will be materially relaxed. 



CHARACTERISTICS OP THE INHABITANTS OP CHINA. 

Little is accurately known concerning this singular people prior 
to the expedition of Matthew and Nicholas Paolo to the court of 
Kublai Khan, about the middle of the thirteenth century. These cele- 
brated adventurers, father and uncle of the yet more famous Marco 
Paolo, or, as it is more commonly written Polo, had made a journey 
to the court of the Mongol emperor, who received and entertained 
them with distinguished courtesy. Marco accompanied them on 
their second expedition to China, and entered into the service of the 
khan, in whose employ he remained nearly twenty years. His 
integrity and active disposition secured to him great favour' from the 
emperor, and he filled various offices of honour and responsibility. 
The accounts given by Marco Polo, on his return to Venice, of the 



276 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

extent, wealtb, and advancement of China, were generally disbe- 
lieved, or condemned as gross exaggerations ; but subsequent inquiry 
lias almost fully confirmed his report, and his description of the 
appearance, customs, and characteristics of the inhabitants apply, in 
most essentials, as well to the Chinese of our own age as to those in 
whose time his journal made its appearance. His style is rather 
enthusiastic than exaggerated: his narrative of facts is plain, sim- 
ple, and truthful. 

The Portuguese at an early period made voyages to the coast of 
China and the adjacent islands, but their lawless and piratical con- 
duct, and their quarrels with the merchants of other nations whom 
they encountered, contributed greatly to nourish that spirit of exclu- 
sion which has shut out so large a part of this country from our 
examination. 

Before the outrages thus committed by early European voy- 
agers, a free trade and intercourse with China were carried on by 
the natives of Southern Asia. Junks from Chinese ports doubled 
the Malay peninsula, and pursued a profitable traffic with various 
towns in India. We may therefore well suppose that, had the con- 
duct of their first visiters been marked by justice and a politic spirit 
of conciliation, the natives of China would readily have facilitated 
a communication, for purposes of mutual improvement and profit, 
with those whom they now designate by no better title than "out- 
side barbarians." 

Even the desperate adventurer, Ferdinand Mendez Pinto, bore 
witness to the moderation and justice of the Chinese authorities, and 
the industrious habits of the populace, which, during his detention 
among them, fell under his observation. 

It would be doing great injustice to the Chinese character to judge 
it by the exhibition of depravity, duplicity, and absurd self-import- 
ance which strikes the observer at Canton. This being the only 
city where foreign trade is generally admitted, and foreigners being 
constantly held up by the native authorities as objects of supreme 
contempt and distrust, it is not unnatural that those who are brought 
habitually into contact with them, should feel at liberty to meet 
supposed fraud with fraud ; and, always expecting deceit from those 
with whom they deal, that they should, in their turn, overreach to 
the extent of their ability. Neither the rabble nor the sagacious 
merchants of Canton offer fair specimens of the national character; 
to understand this thoroughly, a residence in the interior is neces- 



CHINA. 277 

saiy, and an observation of the sobriety, industry and decorum of 
the agricultural and manufacturing classes. 

Gravity, love of country, family affection to a clannish extent, 
reverence to old age, an imperturbable coolness, frugality and con- 
tent, are prominent features in their disposition and deportment. 
The patriarchal system of family government is here carried to a 
great extent; the oldest head of a family retaining authority over 
children and grand-children during his life. The respect paid to 
age, in general, is such, that the term "old, or venerable father," is 
applied indiscriminately to persons of any age, as a complimentary 
expression of respect. 

The more unamiable features of character noticeable in the nation 
at large, are pride and self-conceit. The charge of infanticide, which 
has brought such opprobrium on the national character, appears to 
have been grossly exaggerated, and the intentional destruction of 
their offspring is apparently confined to the most degraded and 
miserable of the population in the larger cities. Bodies of infants 
are, indeed, frequently seen floating in the river at Canton, but 
when we consider the immense number of families who spend the 
principal part of their time upon the water in slight skiffs, we can 
readily account for a large majority of these deaths on the score 
of accident. 

Of the physical conformation of the Chinese, very erroneous con- 
ceptions are apt to be formed: the figures, represented upon their 
tea-caddies and porcelain, approach no nearer to the true appearance 
of the people than the caricatures of a print-shop do to those of 
whom they are the exaggerated effigies. Such of the working 
population as are engaged in active and healthful employment, are 
said to present fine specimens of manly development ; and the angu- 
lar projection of the cheek-bones, and the wrinkled rigidity of 
countenance which distinguish the old, is little observable in the 
young of either sex. Obesity is deemed a desirable and becoming 
condition in a man, but a female figure is admired only when 
extremely slender and delicate. The strange customs of allowing 
the finger-nails to grow to an inordinate length, and of compressing 
the feet of female infants so as entirely to check their growth, had a 
common origin — ^being marks of freedom from the necessity of 
labour. One would suppose that this latter practice would be 
entirely confined to the wealthy and independent, but, having been 
once considered the token of birth and gentility, like all other 



278 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

absurd fashions of the upper classes, it is, to a certain extent, aped 
by tlieir inferiors. A foot subjected to this process of bandaging in 
childhood, never increases in length, but is hideously distorted and 
deformed, resembling in shape rather a hoof or a club-foot, than the 
graceful outlines of its natural form. The women who have suffered 
this mutilation, are almost entirely disabled from walking, but their 
unsteady gait and crippled movements are admired as graces. 

As in nearly all half-civilized countries, women in China are 
considered as an inferior order, but are by no means degraded to the 
slavish lot which is their portion among savage and barbarous 
nations, or in the Mahometan states, A man can legally take but 
one wife, to whom he is espoused with much ceremony ; but this 
does not exclude him from the privilege of maintaining a discre- 
tionary number of tsie or handmaids, whose children are considered 
legitimate, although not entitled to the same privileges and advan- 
tages as those of the wife. It seems that the principal object in 
allowing this species of quasi polygamy is to ensure a male succes- 
sion; for if a man has sons by his true wife, it is considered 
disreputable to have a handmaid. The general analogy of this 
custom to that of the old Jewish patriarchs is sufficiently obvious. 

The supposed subjection of the wife to her husband, and her 
consequent exemption from punishment for certain crimes commit- 
ted in his company, which are features in the English common-law, 
are carried to a much greater and more unqualified extent by the 
Chinese. The grounds for divorce are singular, including, together 
with those adopted by most enlightened governments, ill-temper, 
thieving, and talkativeness. 

The restrictions upon marriage among relations are much more 
rigid than in any other country, extending to all of the same surname. 

A second marriage on the part of a widow is in no case favoured, 
and in persons of a certain rank is positively forbidden. 

Weddings are conducted with abundance of ceremony and merry- 
making, and season of the year preferred for these occasions being 
the early part of Spring, 

The authority of a father over his family is supreme : he may, if 
he choose, sell his children for slaves. The true wife, moreover, has 
absolute control over the offspring of her husband's "handmaids," 

Grreat attention has been paid by the Chinese, from the earliest 
ages, to the education of children. We are apt to look upon the 
present system of universal instruction as an improvement of mod- 



CHINA. 



279 



ern times, but a Chinese writer, who lived two thousand years since, 
makes mention of "the ancient system," by which common schools 
were established in every district of every village, the country being 
minutely sub-divided for this purpose. Many valuable hints might 
be drawn from their maxims of education, which would not be 
thrown away upon teachers of our own age and country . By one 
of these rules, the scholar is especially cautioned against "repeating 
with the mouth, while the heart is thinking of something else." 

National advancement in science and education would seem to be 
considered a matter of no moment in China; indeed, it would be 
diametrically opposed to their permanent and unchangeable system 
children master, of government and instruction. Generation after 
generation, their in succession, the alphabet, a rhyming catechism, of 
childish information, and the four books containing the Confucian 
doctrines. These last are committed to memory entire. 

To be qualified for the degree of doctor, a station of high rank 
and importance, the candidate must undergo three several examina- 
tions. The first of these takes place yearly in every educational 
district ; the second, every three years at the capital of each province, 
and the third, at Pekin, also triennial. From the body of doctors, 
which must never exceed thirty, certain members are chosen for the 
imperial college, after a fourth examination ; and other high ofiicers 
of government generally undergo this probationary course previous 
to their selection. 

Great attention is paid to the performance of funeral rites and 
ceremonies. These are not confined to the' time of burial, as else- 
where, but are periodically renewed. The whole population at 
certain appointed days repair to the places set apart for interment, 
to cleanse and refit the tombs of their friends, particularly of their 
ancestors, and to decorate them with fanciful ornaments of tinsel 
and coloured paper. A bigoted interference with these innocent 
expressions of affection and remembrance was one of the chief reasons 
for the expulsion of the monks, to which allusion has heretofore 
been made. On that occasion, the emperor, in one of his edicts, 
review s the superstitious legends and doctrines which had been 
translated into Chinese, with considerable acumen. After reciting one 
of their tales, he proceeds: "Now this is absurd and extravagant in 
the highest degree ; where did the Europeans become acquainted with 
the appellatives Pei-tse and Fo-tsin, except by their intercourse and 
conversation with our Tartar brethren, from whom they have doubt- 



280 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

less adopted tliem in order to fabricate this idle tale. We do not 
mean rigorously to investigate wliat has been done heretofore, but 
it is obvious that this account of a Pei-tse carried to hell by devils 
is given without any kind of evidence, and does not possess the least 
shadow of truth or credibility. It would appear, in short, to be a 
tale which their ingenuity has contrived; and, upon this principle, 
what is there that we may not readily expect them to say or write ! 
For the ftiture, we earnestly exhort our Tartar subjects to pay atten- 
tion to the language and admonitions of their own country and 
government ; to practice riding and archery, to study the works of 
the learned and virtuous, and to observe the social duties." 

In the same imperial mandate a paragraph occurs which marks, in 
a striking manner, the exceeding reverence considered as due to 
parental authority — this duty being, by implication, placed above 
that of obedience to a Supreme Being. The emperor remarks, after 
various quotations — "The foregoing passages are sufficiently absurd 
and extravagant ; but this is not all ; there are other observations 
still more false and irrational, making light of the obedience due to 
parents, and declaring that the greatest degree of impiety consists in 
disobeying the will of the Tien-Chu (master of heaven)." 

The principal festivals and holy-days of the Chinese are at the 
periods of the new year, and of the first full moon. For several 
days, on the coming in of the new year, which, according to our 
calendar, corresponds to the seventh of March, labour is suspended, 
and the whole populace deliver themselves up to gayety and amuse- 
ment. As the old year goes out, at midnight, commences a scene 
of indescribable tumult and confusion, and the explosion of fire- 
crackers is incessant until daybreak. Then succeed ceremonious 
visits and entertainments among friends and acquaintances ; an inter- 
change of presents, of value corresponding with the rank and 
wealth of the parties, and a general demonstration of extravagant 
courtesy and deference. 

The first full moon is celebrated by the construction and display 
of lanterns, of every conceivable size, form, and material, orna- 
mented with figures made to move by means of the draught of hot 
air passing from the top. Most of these amusements, like the kite- 
flying, skating, and sliding upon sledges, in which all indulge, from 
the gray-bearded mandarin to the ragged urchin, are of the most 
simple and childish description. 

Besides these festivities, there are other celebrations, in honour of 



CHINA. 281 

agriculture and manufactures, to whicTi great importance is attaclied. 
The emperor himself lays his august hands to the plough, and the 
empress does reverence at the altar of him to whom is ascribed the 
invention of manufacturing silk. A buffalo of clay, after being 
paraded with much ceremony and with numerous decorations to the 
house of the governor of the capital, is broken to pieces, and the 
images with which his body is filled are scrambled for and carried 
off by the populace. 

In the month of June, a boat-race is the subject of much excite- 
ment and interest. Boats of great length, called "dragon-boats," 
and propelled by nearly a hundred men, are used for this purpose, 
and the contest is carried on with great eagerness and rivalry. 

It would be a pleasing task, did space permit, to enter into the 
detail of domestic habits and quaint customs which prevail among 
this primitive people. The strange contrarieties which appear upon 
a comparison of their manners with our own are amusing, and at 
times startling; but we must leave this more entertaining portion 
of our subject, to give a general outline of their system of govern- 
ment, and their progress in the arts and sciences. 

The form of government is purely patriarchal: every father 
exercises the most absolute authority over his household; every 
mandarin over the city or town under his control ; the viceroy in 
his province, and the emperor, as pater patrioi^ over the whole nation. 
Ill usage of parents is punished in the severest manner, being con- 
sidered a species of treason, equal in atrocity with resistance to the 
supreme authority of government. By an edict of a late emperor, 
a man who had ill-treated and beaten his mother, was put to death, 
together with his wife, the participator in his crime. By way of 
marking still farther the enormity of the offence, his house was 
razed to the ground; the place was pronounced accursed; the 
unfortunate inhabitants of the district placed under disabilities, and 
the wife's mother was beaten, branded, and exiled. 

As a general rule, parents are liable to punishment for the mis- 
conduct of their children, and are entitled to honour and reward 
upon their advancement. 

Hereditary rank is considered of little importance^ the officers of 
civil authority being generally chosen from the body of the people, 
as persons distinguished for merit and acquirements. The real aris- 
tocracy is one of learning and wisdom, wealth being, less than in 
any other country, a means of attaining influence and respect. The 



282 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

descendants of the royal family have indeed an honorary title, and 
the privilege of wearing yellow girdles as a distinctive badge ; but 
their great number, and want of accompanying authority, render 
them objects of little esteem or reverence. 

• The emperor, as supreme sovereign, possessed of all temporal 
power, and as chief priest and "Son of Heaven," is regarded with 
the greatest awe and veneration. His own dress and regalia are 
generally plain, though the crowds of officers attendant on his court 
are decked out in all the extravagant and gaudy robes and orna- 
ments that ingenuity can contrive. His numerous strange titles 
and attributes, and the endless ceremonies with which his public 
appearance, birth-day honours, and solemn sacrifices are attended, 
are beyond the scope of our present inquiry. He is worshipped 
with the reverence due to a deity. 

The codes of Chinese law, particularly the penal code, are drawn 
up with great care and perspicuity, and have elicited the most 
favourable expressions of commendation from learned and intelli- 
gent jurists; but the will of the emperor is superior to all, and he 
can vary or enlarge the prescribed punishments for crime at his 
pleasure. One very useful provision, however, prevents many of the 
injurious consequences which might result from hasty action on his 
part; namely, that these special edicts are confined, in their effect, 
to the particular case in which they are issued, and never have the 
force of precedent. 

To carry on the general affairs of government, there are three 
distinct councils; the highest consisting of two Tartars and two 
Chinese ; the second, a larger body, chosen mostly from the learned 
doctors of the imperial college, and a privy council for matters 
requiring secret or summary procedure. 

The separate departments of the appointment of officers, the 
management of the revenue, the regulation of ceremonials, the 
superintendance of the military system, the supreme jurisdiction of 
criminal affairs, and the control of public works, are each adminis- 
tered by a regularly constituted board or committee. There is, 
besides, an officer for the administration of foreign affairs. 

To secure prompt information at the capital, of disorders or mal- 
administration in the provinces, emissaries are sent to different parts 
of the country to examine and report. These spies are chosen from 
the bod}^ of censors, who, to the number of nearly fifty, are consti- 
tuted to correct abuses, and who are privileged to remonstrate with 



CHINA. 



283 



tlie emperor himself, if his proceedings meet with tlieir disapproba- 
tion. They have two presidents, one chosen from among the 
Chinese, and the other from the Tartars. 

Each province has a governor, except in a few instances, where two 
provinces are united, and each city and district its appropriate 
mandarin or magistrate. It is a fixed principle, that the magis- 
trate shall not belong to the place where he exercises authority, and 
at regular periods the various offices change their incumbents. 

All civil officers and magistrates are held strictly to account, and 
punished or degraded for any rebellion or outbreak within their 
jurisdiction, and this, however innocent they may have been, either 
of participation, connivance, or neglect. 

The military organization of the Chinese is exceedingly weak and 
inefficient, the standing army being ill-disciplined and worse armed, 
and the militia a mere rabble, utterly incompetent to resist the attack 
of regular troops. Their clumsy and unserviceable matchlocks and 
artillery have furnished abundant theme for ridicule to the Europe- 
ans who have been engaged in hostilities against them. 

Of the arts, sciences, and inventions of the ancient inhabitants of 
the country, our notice must necessarily be very brief That they 
were, at an early date, in possession of much knowledge not diffiised 
through Europe until within the last few centuries, appears suffi- 
ciently evident. 

The fact that the magnet would communicate polarity to the 
needle is mentioned in a Chinese dictionary, of the date of A. D, 
121, and the use of the compass by mariners, before the fifth cen- 
tury, appears from other ancient records. No mention is made of 
this property of the magnet by any European writer before the year 
1190. Long previous to this, even the precise variation of the needle 
was known and recorded in China. 

We have mentioned, in a former chapter, the early discovery of 
the art of printing. This is practised at the present day, in much 
the same manner as upon its first introduction, simply by means of 
engraved wooden blocks. Moveable types are used for some pur- 
poses, but not extensively, the immense number and variety of 
letters in the Chinese alphabet, rendering this improvement less 
available, as a matter of economy, than in languages, the elements 
of which are siifficiently simple to allow all their letters to be kept 
within reach of the compositor. In taking impressions, the printer 
holds in one hand two brushes, connected by a single handle. 



284 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

WitL. one of these lie lays tlie ink upon tlie block, and passes the 
Other over the paper, which is so thin and light as to require no 
greater pressure. A species of cerography is in use at Canton for 
the publication of a daily journal. 

Another art, which has effected the greatest revolution in military 
operations throughout the world, had its origin, if not its adaptation 
to warlike purposes, in China — the manufacture of gunpowder. It 
seems probable that the composition of nitre, sulphur, and "willow" 
charcoal was known, and was the material employed for fireworks 
and other purposes, hundreds of years before the use of artillery 
was introduced into that country. 

The valuable and important arts of manufacturing porcelain and 
silk had also a Chinese origin, and still give employment to an 
immense number of native artisans. Many of their fabrics are of 
peculiar beauty and excellence, never having been successfully 
imitated elsewhere. 

India ink, so highly valued by artists for the delicacy and 
smoothness of its shades, is made only in that country, and is indeed 
the ink commonly used there for writing purposes. The material 
from which it is manufactured has been till very recently a question 
of much curiosity and dispute, and it has been the commonly 
received opinion, that it was prepared from the dark secretions of a 
species of cuttle-fish. It is now ascertained to be composed of lamp- 
black, combined with certain gums. 

The artisans in metals; the lapidaries; the manufacturers of 
lackered ware, of ivory, and of the infinite variety of ornamental 
and fancy work for which we are indebted to this distant country, 
exhibit the greatest skill and ingenuity. 

The custom of drinking tea, so universally adopted in all parts 
of the world, was introduced by the Chinese, and for its indulgence 
we are still dependant upon them. The use of this beverage^ which 
is very ancient in China, was unknown in England, except as a 
foreign and curious custom, until within the last two centuries. In 
1734, the whole quantity brought into Great Britain amounted to 
but six hundred and thirty-two thousand pounds ; but so rapidly did 
the consumption increase, that one hundred years later the importa- 
tion exceeded thirty millions. Many of the peculiarities of this 
singular people, the details of which are both interesting and amusing, 
are necessarily omitted, from the limited extent of these pages. 



TIE lAHOlETAIS. 



udjitiliirijliiiri jio 

THE INHABITANTS OF ARABIA. THEIR ANCIENT GOTERN- 

MENT AND RELIGION 

For many ages, tlie great peninsula of Arabia, from its isolated 
position, and from the peculiar political institutions of its inhabit- 
ants, afforded little deserving of the name of history. Protected 
by their deserts, and unenvied in their poverty, the wandering 
tribes remained unchanged amid all those convulsions which effaced 
the mightiest dynasties of the East, and overwhelmed the most 
ancient and populous nations. The native inhabitants of Arabia 
were divided into two classes, one of which pursued a prosperous 
and settled system of agriculture, or carried on an enterprising com- 
merce along the Red Sea and Persian Gulf; the other, by far more 
numerous and distinctively national, inherited the free and roving 
habits of their progenitor, Ishmael, "the wild man, whose hand is 
against every man, and every man's hand against him." These 
"dwellers in tents," so often mentioned in the Sacred Writings, led 
an unsettled life, roaming from place to place with their flocks and 
camels, and finding water and pasturage at the springs and oases, 
the resorts of their forefathers from the earliest ages. Each of these 
numerous and independent tribes, as at the present day, was gov- 
erned by a chief or sheik, the patriarch and ruler of his people. 
Like most nations leading a clannish life, they were frequently 
engaged in deadly and hereditary feuds, revenge being handed 
down as a sacred legacy from father to son. They were skilful and 

* For the principal particulars in the history of the Mahometan empire, during the 
first century of its duration, the author has chiefly relied upon the late admirable 
and interesting work of Mr. Irving, " Mahomet and his Successors." 



286 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

hardy warriors, superior to all others on their native sands, and acted 
as alternate protectors and plunderers of the caravans of their more 
civilized brethren. 

The greater part of the ancient Arabians adhered to the religion 
called the Sabean, a term variously explained by different authori- 
ties. It was originally a pure and simple belief, deriyed, it was 
said, from Abraham and the patriarchs. It inculcated the worship 
of one God, a system of future retribution, and the necessity of a 
pure and virtuous life in order to obtain future happiness. With 
these simple and sublime truths was associated a wild and erroneous 
reverence for the stars, which were regarded as the habitations of 
angels, intercessors with the Most High ; to whom the veneration 
of his worshippers was so great, that they dared to approach him 
only through the medium of these heavenly influences. To this 
error were finally superadded others of a nature far grosser and 
more unspiritual. The stars themselves were worshipped, and their 
images set up in forests and in temples. Each tribe paid devotion 
to some particular luminary, or to the idol by which it was repre- 
sented. Female infants were sacrificed at their shrines or were 
buried alive. 

The belief of the Magians or fire-worshippers, derived from Per- 
sia, also prevailed to some extent. This system, of which the prime 
apostle was the celebrated Zoroaster, inculcated a belief in two 
opposite agencies or spirits, Ormuzd and Ahorman, the Good and 
the Evil, which were ever at warfare. The first was typified by 
light or the sun, and the latter by darkness ; and by degrees the 
gross and open worship of the mysterious element of fire was 
substituted for that of the spiritual principle, of which it was an 
emblem. To dispel the abhorred condition of darkness, fires were 
kindled on the mountain-tops to supply the absence of the sun- a 
perpetual flame was maintained in the temples ; and human victims 
were consumed to propitiate the fiery deity. 

The Jewish faith, especially after the dispersion of its followers 
by the destruction of Jerusalem, was also extensively disseminated 
and its proselytes attained to considerable power. Christianity had 
also made its way into these desolate regions. St. Paul went into 
Arabia, and probably preached to the inhabitants. A few centuries 
afterwards, in the age of fanatical asceticism, the caves and deserts 
of Arabia were thickly sown with anchorites, who, by solitude and 
penance, sought a painful passage to future felicity. The Christian 



THE MAHOMETANS. 287 

belief, tliougli taintea with, error, gained also a considerable footing 
among the native tribes. 

To those who held the ancient Sabean faith, the most sacred 
region in all Arabia was that of the city of Mecca. Within its 
walls was the holy well of Zem Zem, which had quenched the 
thirst of their forefather Ishmael when sent forth with his mother 
into the desert ; and the Caaba, a temple which, it was said, he had 
built, assisted by his father Abraham, on the site of a cloudy taber- 
nacle, worshipped in by Adam himself. A sacred stone, brought, 
says tradition, by the angel Gabriel from Paradise, and inserted in 
tbe wall by its builders, receives the kisses of the Faithful, even to 
the present day. From the remotest antiquity, these relics had been 
the object of enthusiastic pilgrimages. For four months in every 
year, the hostile tribes laid aside their arms; the desert was trav- 
ersed in security ; and thousands of pilgrims flocked through, the 
gates of Mecca, to walk seven times around the Caaba ; to kiss the 
sacred stone of Paradise ; and to drink from the well of Zem Zem. 



kJ Jjcu wOj (L (L fXJ (Lu Jj lib o 

THE EARLY LIFE OF MAHOMET. HIS RELIGIOUS 

PRETENSIONS. 

Mahomet, the founder of that wonderful and far-spread system 
of belief which bears his name, was born at Mecca, in April, in the 
year A. D. 569. He was a descendant of the celebrated tribe of 
Koreish, and his immediate ancestors had been distinguished for 
some generations by their patriotism and the influence which they 
swayed in the sacred city. 

When only two months old, his father Abdallah died, leaving 
bim only a few camels and sheep, and a female slave, as his inherit- 
ance. The native chroniclers of Mahomet's career have given the 
most marvellous and incredible accounts of prodigies and phenom- 
ena which attended his birth and his earliest years. It was said 
that, at an age when other children were still in the nurse's arms, 



288 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



lie displayed a precocity and wisdom which astonished all who knew 
him. This is not in itself incredible, for recent times have wit- 
nessed a very similar phenomenon. It is not quite as easy to believe 
the authors who relate that, when at the age of three, while playing 
in the fields, the angel Gabriel laid him on the ground, opened his 
breast, extracted the heart, and, having cleansed it of that black 
and sinful drop peculiar to all mankind, gently restored it uninjured 
to its place. It seems certain, however, that from his early years, 
he evinced a reflecting, imaginative, and probably a highly preco- 
cious mind. 

When he was in his sixth year, his mother died, and the child 
was adopted by his grandfather, Abd al Motalleb. On the death 
of the latter, two years afterwards, his eldest son, Abu Taleb, suc- 
ceeded him in the guardianship of the sacred Caaba, and the care 
of his little nephew, Mahomet. Educated in this priestly house- 
hold, the mind of the youth naturally acquired a strong tendency 
to theological speculation, while his faculties and demeanour were 
improved by the opportunities which this city, so greatly frequented 
by pilgrims and strangers, afforded. 

At the age of twelve, he was permitted to accompany his guard- 
ian with a caravan to Syria. On this journey, the solitude of the 
desert, with the wild and supernatural tales to which he listened at 
the nightly halts of the caravan, excited his imagination, and deeply 
impressed his memory. Having arrived at Bosra, east of the Jor- 
dan, a city inhabited by Nestorian Christians, the youthful traveller 
made acquaintance with a monk named Sergius, who was strongly 
interested by the intelligence of the youth, and his eager desire for 
religious information. Here, probably, was laid the foundation of that 
zealous abhorrence toward idolatry which afterwards distinguished 
the founder of the new religion ; and having learned the wonderful 
events of which Syria had been the scene, and the holy beings who 
had dwelt in its borders, he always spoke with deep reverence of 
that ancient and mysterious land. 

From this time, Mahomet accompanied his uncle on many expe- 
ditions, and though very youthf al, acted as his quiver-bearer in an 
action between the Koreishites and the tribe of Hawazan. He 
afterwards was employed by various persons as a commercial agent, 
and often travelled with caravans to Yemen, Syria, and elsewhere. 
By this continual intercourse with different classes of mankind, 
his faculties and his knowledge of human nature became yet farther 



THE MAHOMETANS. 289 

enlarged and strengthened. He was already distinguislied for his 
personal beauty and his agreeable manners. At the age of twenty- 
five, he was married to Cadijah, a wealthy widow of Mecca, whose 
commercial factor he had been for some time; and was at once 
enrolled among the important persons of his native place. 

His high character for truth and honesty procured him still 
greater influence; and he was commonly known by the name of 
Al Amin, or the Faithful. He was still employed in commerce, and 
frequently accompanied the caravans on distant expeditions. Five 
children were added to his household. But his mind dwelt less 
and less on the matters of the world. Eeligious musings, to which 
he had been prone from his earliest youth, thickened upon him, and 
he learned much concerning other forms of faith from Waraka, his 
wife's cousin, who had been a Jew and a Christian, and had translated 
portions of both Scriptures into the Arabic. He became more 
keenly sensible to the evils of idolatry. The Caaba, filled with its 
multitude of images, was strongly contrasted with that pure and 
spiritual faith which, perhaps, had first occasioned its erection. 
His mind continually dwelt upon a project of restoring what he 
considered the most ancient and true religion — the religion of Adam 
and the Patriarchs — the worship of the one and only God. Engrossed 
with these subjects, he often retired to a cavern on Mount Hara, a 
few miles from Mecca, and there remained for long intervals, engaged 
in prayer and meditation. From exclusively dwelling on such 
thoughts, he continually dreamed on the object of his wishes; and 
was at length subject to frequent trances, in, which he became, to 
all appearance, insensible to surrounding objects. 

Whatever he beheld or imagined, however, he kept a profound 
secret until his fortieth year. At that time, while passing the holy 
month of Eamadhan, according to his wont, in fasting and prayer, 
on his favourite mountain, he heard, it is said, a voice calling him, 
and beheld a light of such intolerable brightness, that he fainted 
away. On recovering, he beheld the angel Gabriel, who exhibited 
to him the decrees of God, written on silk, and saluted him as the 
prophet of the Most High. Trembling, and but half-assured of 
the sacred authenticity of his vision, he sought Cadijah, who con- 
firmed his wavering faith, and expressed the fullest confidence in 
his sacred mission. His friend Waraka zealously concurred in this 
conviction, and Mahomet, thus supported, became a fall and earnest 
convert to the reality of his divine calling. 
19 



290 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

His third proselyte was Zeid, an Arab slave, "whom lie had 
adopted, and who was devotedly attached to him. The prophet, 
however confident of his ultimate success, was compelled, by dread 
of the prevailing superstition, to proceed with some secresy and 
caution ; and during the first three years, made only forty converts. 
Their meetings were held privately, sometimes in a cave near the 
city. At one of these assemblies, a rabble discovering their pro- 
ceedings, broke into the retreat, and a fight ensued, in which one 
of the assailants was wounded. The uncle of Mahomet, Abu 
Lahab, a proud and wealthy man, was one of his fiercest opponents. 
The pretender was taunted with insanity — a supposition which his 
worn and abstracted appearance certainly countenanced. 

In the fourth year, however, in pursuance of a fresh command, 
he summoned his tribe to a hill near Mecca, and publicly unfolded 
his claims and his mission. Abu Lahab was enraged yet farther, 
and the meeting broke up in disorder. At a second assembly, which 
he summoned in his own house, he again announced, at full length, 
his supposed revelations, and inquired who would be the chief or 
vizier under him in his new undertaking. His cousin, the youthful 
and enthusiastic Ali, amid the sneers of his family, joyfully accepted 
the offer; and afterwards, when advanced in years, inherited the 
power attained by the despised pretender. Mahomet now openly 
and earnestly proclaimed himself the prophet of God, sent to extir- 
pate idolatry, restore the true religion, and soften the rigour of the 
Jewish and the Christian faiths. While reverencing the patriarchs, 
Moses, and Christ, and fully admitting their divine mission, he 
claimed for himself a still fuller and a final authority, destined to 
supersede all that had gone before. The Koran, which he delivered 
in chapters from time to time, purports to be the very words of God, 
communicated through his instrument, Mahomet. The name of 
Islam, an Arabian word, implying "submission to God," was applied 
to the new religion, and forms the keystone of its tenets. The leading 
article of his faith was contained in the celebrated words, reverenced 
to this day by hundreds of millions of Moslem believers — "There is 
no god but God, and Mahomet is the prophet of God. " A belief in 
predestination, in the resurrection of the body, in the last judgment, 
and in a faturity of reward or punishment, was also inculcated. M uch 
of this extraordinary and imaginative work was derived from the 
Jewish writings and from the Bible, although with many strange 
perversions. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 291 

So strongly did the new law-giver oppose idolatry, that he con- 
demned all images and representations of the human form, affirming 
that the makers would be compelled in the next world to furnish them 
with souls, or to undergo punishment. Charity and the eternal laws 
of justice were strongly inculcated' — all the finer passages, enforcing 
the mutual duties of mankind, being drawn from the inspired lan- 
guage of the Saviour. The importance of prayer was particularly 
enforced ; and amid the ceremonies prescribed by the new religion, 
a number of those pertaining to the old were, in a politic manner, 
retained — among them the pilgrimage to Mecca, and such rites at 
the Caaba and the well of Zem Zem, as were untainted by idolatry. 



THE LIFE OF MAHOMET, FEOM THE PROMULGATION OF HIS 
DOCTRINES UNTIL HIS "HEGIRA," OR FLIGHT TO MEDINA. 

Like nearly all who, whether truly or falsely, first claim the 
dangerous honours of an inspired reformation, Mahomet was speedily 
exposed, in exercising his new vocation, to ridicule and personal 
violence. Some thought him a sorcerer. Others said he was pos- 
sessed by a devil. Taunts and insult followed him in the streets. 
Dirt was thrown on him while praying in the Caaba, Worse than 
all, Amru, one of the wittiest satirical poets of the day, made the 
new doctrine the object of his pleasantries, which proved more for- 
midable to its spread than the weapons of the most bigoted idolaters. 
The prophet was continually importuned to enforce his claims by 
miracle, like the divine ambassadors of old. He replied that the 
Koran, proceeding from an unlettered man, was the greatest miracle 
that could be produced. The pretended tokens of his divinity, 
recorded by some Mahometan authors, and the gross artifices to 
which some Christian commentators have attributed them, appear, 
says Mr. Irving, equally without foundation. The truth appears to 
have been that at this time he was supported by a real religious 
enthusiasm, founded on the strange visions, and epileptic trances to 
which he was subject. 



292 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

The Koreisliites, alarmed at the earnestness of his attacks on their 
favourite idolatries, now proceeded to fresh insults and violence. He 
was attacked and nearly strangled in the Caaba; and his daughter 
Eokaia, with a fevr other of his more defenceless disciples, were 
compelled to cross the Eed Sea, and take refuge in the Christian 
kingdom of Abyssinia. A law was passed, banishing all believers 
in the new heresy, and Mahomet himself was compelled to leave 
the city, and take refuge in the house of a convert named Orkham, 
on the hill of Safa, sacred in Arabian tradition. Even here he was 
sought out and maltreated by Abu Jhal, an enthusiastic Koreishite. 
The nephew of the latter, Omar, a youth of gigantic strength and 
fierceness, was next despatched to kill him. On his way, he dis- 
covered that his own sister was a secret convert to Islam, and, being 
persuaded by her, publicly embraced the new religion, and protected 
the prophet and his followers while they worshipped in the Caaba. 

Mahomet, still endangered by the violence of his enemies, next 
lived for three years in a castle belonging to his uncle Abu Taleb, 
who still afforded him all the protection in his power. At the insti- 
gation of Abu Sofian, the head of another branch of the tribe, a 
decree was passed, written on parchment, and hung up in the Caaba, 
forbidding all intercourse with the contumacious family until 
Mahomet should be delivered up. By this, he and his adherents 
were reduced to great extremities, and at times were half-famished 
in their beleaguered stronghold. At the annual season of the pil- 
grimage, however, when the Arabs were accustomed to lay aside all 
hostilities, he ventiired into the city, and by his earnest exhortations, 
made many converts among the crowds resorting to the Caaba. 

At length, after three years passed in this species of excommuni- 
cation, he was permitted to return to Mecca. Fresh conversions, 
both of citizens and strangers, speedily ensued. The prophet was 
now deprived by death of his uncle and protector, Abu Taleb, and 
his faithful wife Cadijah, the two persons to whom he had been 
principally indebted for his exaltation and protection. He had 
always been faithful to the latter, but, after her death, indulged in 
the Arabian custom of taking a plurality of wives. He allowed, 
by decree, four to each of his followers ; but placed no restraint on 
the number of his own, shrewdly remarking that a prophet was not 
to be confined within the same limits as ordinary mortals. 

The death of his uncle left him unprotected against the rage of 
the hostile branch of the Koreishites, headed by Abu Jahl and Abu 



THE MAHOMETANS. 293 

Sofian. He sought refuge at Tayef, but endeavouring there to pro- 
pagate his doctrines, met with much outrage and violence, and was 
finally ignominiously driven from the city. He was compelled to 
remain awhile in the desert, and there, while reading the Koran in 
the lonely valley of Naklah, was overheard, as he says, by a com- 
pany of spirits or genii, who confessed and applauded the truth of 
his doctrines. Arabian mythology abounds in tales of these Avonder- 
ful beings, many of whom are considered to have embraced the true 
religion. Others still continue perverse and heretical; and the 
angels drive them away with flaming darts, as they attempt to 
penetrate the abodes of the blessed. When the Arab beholds a 
meteor or shooting-star, he imagines it to be a bolt hurled at one 
of these rebellious and misbelieving spirits, and piously exclaims, 
"May the enemy of God be transfixed!" They were also supposed 
to inhabit the bodies of certain reptiles ; and Mahomet warned his 
followers not to kill too hastily any serpent whom they might 
find in a house. "Warn him to depart," he says; "if he do not 
obey, then kill him, for it is a sign that he is a mere reptile, or an 
infidel genius." 

He at length returned to Mecca, and lived concealed in the house 
of one of his disciples. It was now ten years from the memorable 
day on which he had first announced his prophetic claim; ever 
since that day he had been continually exposed to misfortune, 
enmity, and persecution; yet, impelled by his natural firmness, and 
perhaps some real conviction of the sanctity of his mission, he still 
persevered unweariedly in spreading his doctrines. At the annual 
season of immunity from violence, he once more ventured forth, and 
mingled with the crowds whom devotion had gathered in the city. 
His preaching attracted the attention of certain pilgrims from the 
city of Yathreb, since so honoured, under the name of Medina, by 
all true Mussulmans. These strangers had heard much from the 
Jews concerning their expected Messiah, and were readily won to 
acknowledge him in the person of Mahomet. On their return, he 
sent with them some of his disciples to propagate the new faith and 
to prepare for his friendly reception. Numbers of the persecuted 
sect soon followed them from Mecca, and the faith spread with rapid- 
ity throughout the city of refuge. More than seventy of the new 
converts repaired to Mecca, distant two hundred and seventy miles, 
and at a midnight meeting on the hill without the town, invited the 
prophet to take up his abode in their city. He consented, exacting 



294 ^'HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

in return the abjuration of idolatry, and implicit obedience to bis 
commands. 

It was indeed evident tliat be could no longer remain in Mecca. 
Abu Sofian, bis inveterate foe, was governor of tbe city, and tbe 
cbiefs of tbe Koreisbites bad resolved on bis assassination. Tbe 
murderers were actually despatcbed to bis bouse ; but by tbe fidelity 
of Ali, wbo took bis place on tbe coucb wbere be usually reclined, 
be escaped by stealtb from tbe city, and witb bis devoted adberent, 
Abu Beker, remained for tbree days concealed in a cave on Mount 
Tbor. On tbe fourtb day, tbey fled on camels toward Medina ; and 
a cbieftain named Soraka, wbo witb bis troop overtook tbem, was 
so affected by tbe eloquence of Mabomet, as to relinquisb bis intended 
attack, and depart. Tbe persecuted aspirant to divine bonours 
reached Medina without further trouble, and made a triumphal 
entry into tbe Faithful City. He was soon joined by bis family and 
his remaining adherents. This celebrated "Hegira," or "Flight of 
the Prophet," occurred in the year 622 A. D. ; and is the era from 
which all Moslem nations date their chronology. 



CHAPTER I? 



FROM THE HEGIRA TO THE CAPTURE OP MECCA. 

Feom this period, with the change of circumstances, an entire 
corresponding change seems to have taken place in the feelings and 
conduct of Mabomet. If hitherto, powerless and persecuted, he 
had displayed patience, and a sincere confidence in tbe divinity of 
bis calling, his character was unfitted to withstand the temptations 
of power and tbe opportunity of vengeance. He was now at the 
bead of a formidable sect, composed of converts in Medina and 
refugees from Mecca. Thirteen years of persecution bad, doubtless, 
left their natural effects upon his mind; and tbe hatred of idolatry 
came very opportunely to aid the ancient spirit of revenge. 

As yet, the religion be inculcated was one of much purity and 




/^^^ r ^^ ^ -9 . 



THK HECtIRA, or I'LIQ-HT OF THE FALSE FEOfHET MAHOMET 



Afti-.r btting compHil^d, "by tbe violence oC his enemiH,^, to quit l\[edina, tli-' 
prophet for three ti;iys remained hid in a sohtary cave -z^ Mount Thor. At tr. 
end of th'it tirr.e,, he secretly dep:)i'ted with a single oompianion, the faitniul Ah'. 
Beker Urging their c:i.raels hastily over the desert, they arrived in safety at thf 
strong and irit^ndiy city of Medina This memorable Flight, from which all Mosjen 
nations date their chronology, occurred in the 022d year of the Christin.n era, 



THE MAHOMETANS, 295 

humanity. Charity, which included, in his definition, all the kind- 
ness and courtesy which mortals can display to each other, was 
especially enforced — a beautifu.1 theory, which was but indifferently 
illustrated by his subsequent proceedings. The inference can hardly 
be avoided, that from this time, mixed perhaps with some real 
trances and visionary delusion, his mind lapsed farther and farther 
into a system of imposture, which he perceived to be efficacious in 
carrying out his ends. 

His first act was to erect a mosque, of simple and primitive 
construction — a work in which he assisted with his own hands, and 
which, beautified and enlarged, remains to this day an object of the 
deepest veneration to the Faithful. It contains the ashes of the 
prophet, and of others memorable in the history of Islam. 

Soon after his arrival at Medina, he married the beautiful child 
Ayesha, the daughter of Abu Beker, to whom he had been betrothed 
for some years. During his subsequent career, he availed himself 
of the license which he had assumed to take to himself a number of 
wives truly oriental — his natural susceptibility or sensuality inciting 
him to add to his household every beautiful woman who crossed his 
path. The attachment of Ali, his devoted follower, was yet further 
strengthened by a marriage with Fatima, the youngest daughter of 
the prophet. 

On finding his strength so much greater than he had anticipated, 
his preaching assumed a different tone, and he announced that the 
peaceful mission of former saints and prophets having proved insuf- 
ficient to convert the refractory nations, he had been intrusted, as 
the last of the prophets, with the terrible argument of the sword. 
All who refused conformity to the new religion were to be openly 
despoiled or slain ; the eternal society of houris was to be the reward 
of those who fell in fighting for the true fiiith ; and the doctrine of 
predestination, proclaiming that none could die before their allotted 
time, was adduced to strengthen the courage of the faithful. 

These doctrines were peculiarly acceptable to a warlike and pre- 
datory people ; and little time was lost in carrying them into profitable 
execution. Some unimportant expeditions, despatched to plunder 
the caravans of the Koreishites, were first undertaken, though with 
little result. In the second year of the Hegira, Mahomet, with a 
little more than three hundred men, sallied forth to attack a large 
and wealthy caravan, which his old enemy, Abu Sofian, was con- 
ducting from Syria to Mecca. He lay in ambush, awaiting the 



296 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

expected plunder, by a brook called Beder ; but the enemy having 
intelligence of bis designs, changed their route, and evaded the 
danger. A large force which had been despatched to their assistance 
from Mecca, under Abn Jahl, pressed forward, and, weakened by 
thirst and fatigiie, engaged the Moslems. The latter, refreshed by 
rest, and enjoying the advantage of position, gained a complete 
victory. The Koreishites fled, leaving seventy of their number 
prisoners, and as many dead on the field. Among the latter was 
Abn Jahl, the inveterate enemj^ of the faith of Islam. His head 
was brought to Mahomet, who exulted over the fate of the "Pha- 
raoh of his nation." Such was the commencement of that wonderful 
series of victories and invasions which has so materially changed the 
destinies of the Eastern world. 

Eeturning to Medina in triumph, with the plunder of his enemies, 
Mahomet assumed a yet more decided tone, and ruled with a more 
arbitrary sway. The Jews of that city had incurred his enmity, by 
their poetical satire and the ridicule which they had thrown upon 
his doctrines. Several of them were, in revenge, assassinated by 
the Moslems ; and the prophet, taking advantage of a general fray, 
confiscated all their wealth, which was considerable, and banished 
them, to the number of seven hundred men, to Syria. Moreover, 
irritated at their opposition, he substituted Mecca for Jerusalem, 
which he had at first made the Kebla or point of prayer to which 
all true Moslems must turn when at their devotions. 

In the third year of the Hegira, Abu Sofian took the field, with 
three thousand men, burning to avenge the disgrace of their arms 
and the slaughter of their friends. Mahomet, urged b}^ the zeal of 
his followers, went out to meet them, with scarce a third of their 
number, and this scanty force was soon diminished, by defection, to 
seven hundred men. While posted on the hill of Ohod, about six 
miles from Medina, his forces were attacked by those of the enemy. 
His warriors' fought with the greatest desperation, and performed 
prodigies of valour. The prophet, though not given to fight in 
person, slew with his own hand an idolater, who had attacked him, 
and received a number of wounds on his own person. He was 
dragged from among the wounded by his remaining adherents, and 
carried to the summit of a rock, whither the Koreishites, busied with 
plunder and the mutilation of the dead, did not pursue them. Abu 
Sofian, content with his victory, and not venturing to attack the 
city, soon after made a truce for a year, and withdrew to Mecca. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 297 

To revenge the defection of a certain Jewish tribe, the leader of 
Islam now proceeded to banish them from the country, and seize on 
their property. A singular instance of the devotion of his follow- 
ers occurred about this time. The prophet had been smitten by the 
charms of Zeinab, the wife of Zeid, his adopted son. The latter, 
with a pious zeal which seems a little ludicrous, made all haste to 
obtain a divorce; and his patron presently added the lady to the 
already tolerably extensive list of his consorts. This proceeding 
gave considerable scandal to the Faithful, which, however, was 
quieted by an opportune revelation, drawing a nice distinction 
between the wife of a natural son and of a son by adoption. 

By an expedition against the hostile tribe of the Beni Mostalek, 
Mahomet gained a great booty in camels, sheep, and prisoners. This 
success was somewhat alloyed by a suspicious occurrence, on the 
return, which threw a doubt upon the fidelity of his favourite wife, 
Ayesha. Medina rang with fresh scandal ; but a revelation, equally 
convenient with the former, announced her innocence, and prescribed 
a handsome castigation for her calumniators. This was duly inflicted, 
especially upon an unfortunate poet, named Hasan, who had cele- 
brated the obnoxious circumstance in a copy of satirical verses. 

The truce with Mecca being ended, Abu Sofian, reinforced by con- 
federate tribes, and by many of the banished Hebrews, marched 
against Medina with a force of ten thousand men. By advice of 
Salman, an able Persian convert, a deep moat was dug for some 
distance in front of the city, and Mahomet, with three thousand men, 
stood prepared to defend it. After a partial skirmish, of no great 
importance, he despatched an artful emissary, who succeeded in 
instilling distrust and mutual suspicion among the chiefs of the con- 
federate camp. At this moment, a cold and furious storm of rain 
set in ; the tents were blown down ; and the besiegers retreated in 
confusion, supposing that the very elements, by the enchantment of 
the prophet, had been invoked against them. The Beni Koraida, 
a tribe of Jews, who had been engaged in the late assault, were in 
their turn besieged in their stronghold, and compelled by famine 
to surrender. The men, seven hundred in number, were butchered 
and thrown into a common grave, and the women and children were 
devoted to slavery. 

After six years had elapsed since his flight from Mecca, Mahomet 
became desirous of once more revisiting that sacred, though hostile 
city, and, in the holy month devoted to peace, set forth on his 



298 ^'HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

pilgrimage, attended by fourteen hundred of Lis followers. He was 
unable, however, to obtain admission — the dread and jealousy of the 
Koreisli proving stronger than all bis claims and promises. Their 
envoys were astonished at the reverence paid to him by his fanatical 
subjects. "I have seen," said one, "the king of Persia and the 
emperor of Constantinople, surrounded by their courts; but never 
did I behold a sovereign so revered by his subjects, as is Mahomet 
by his followers." A hair from his head, the paring of a nail, was 
held a sacred relic. A treaty was made, providing for the future 
admission of Mahomet and his people, under certain limitations, and 
they returned for the present to Medina, without having tasted the 
well of Zem Zem, or made their seven circuits round the Caaba. 

To gratify the predatory inclinations of his followers, he next led 
a powerful expedition against Khaibar, a wealthy and powerful city 
of the Jews. After a siege of some time, a breach was made in the 
walls by battering rams; and Omar, Abu Beker, and other champions 
headed assaults with great bravery, but without success. It was 
finally taken by the impetuous valour of Ali, "The Lion of God," 
concerning whose exploits the Moslem writers narrate the most 
incredible stories. Kenana, the defeated prince, was tortured and 
put to death. In the midst of his triumph, the prophet nearly met 
his death, having commenced to dine upon a poisoned shoulder of 
mutton ; which unwholesome dish, indeed, according to the Mahome- 
tan writers, spoke aloud, and warned him of his danger, though too 
late to secure him entirely from injury. 

While, by various hostile expeditions, the adventurer was rapidly 
extending his sway among the Arabian tribes, he did not neglect 
to inform the neighbouring political powers of his divine preten- 
sions. Khosru II., the great and victorious monarch of Persia, 
received his overtures with contempt, tore his letter in pieces, and 
sent orders to his viceroy at Yemen to restore Mahomet's reason, 
or to send his head. Heraclius, the Eoman emperor of the East, 
somewhat depressed at this time by the successes of Khosru, with 
whom he was at war, received the envoy sent to him more civilly, 
but probably attached little importance to the circumstance. The 
governor of Egypt, a nominal viceroy of the emperor, also considered 
his message respectfully; and, among other delicate attentions, sent 
the prophet two beautiful Coptic slaves. The latter was exceedingly 
desirous to have taken one of them as his concubine ; but this his 
own Koran forbade, on penalty of stripes. A convenient revelation 



THE MAHOMETANS, 



299 



again smootlied over the difficulty; and the beautiful Mariyaii long 
remained his favourite. 

At the allotted time, Mahomet, numerously attended, made his 
pilgrimage to Mecca, He reverently performed the usual rites, and 
gained many converts; among them, Khaled, a fierce and intrepid 
warrior, and Amru, his former satirist, afterwards so celebrated in 
the history of Saracen conquest. 

A Mahometan envoy had been slain at Muta, a town in Syria, 
subject to the emperor. To avenge his death, an army of three 
thousand men was despatched, under Zeid, against the obnoxious 
city. When near it, they encountered a greatly superior force of 
Greeks and hostile Arabs. A furious conflict ensued, in which 
Zeid was mortally wounded, and Khaled broke nine cimeters fight- 
ing desperately hand to hand with the enemy. Succeeding to the 
command, the latter, by dexterous manoeuvres, defeated them on 
the following day, with great slaughter, and returned to Medina, 
laden with spoil. He received, in consequence of the valour displayed 
in this action, the honourable title of the "Sword of God,"' — a dis- 
tinction which incited him to exploits of fresh energy and daring. 

The sway of Mahomet now extended over a great number of the 
Arabian tribes. A most formidable force was ever at his command. 
With increased power, came enlarged views of conquest and uni- 
versal conversion to the faith of Islam. To gain possession of his 
native place, the holy city of Mecca, to purify it of idolatry, and 
convert the Caaba into a shrine for the Faithful, was now his most 
cherished desire. Some trouble having occurred with the Koreish- 
ites, the latter, in alarm, despatched Abu Sofian to avert the dreaded 
wrath of the prophet; but he could obtain no satisfactory reply. 

Preparations for invasion had been made with the greatest secresy 
and promptitude; and, only seven years afl;er his memorable flight, 
Mahomet, with ten thousand men, took the road to Mecca. Abu 
Sofian was captured on the way, and was made a reluctant convert 
by the threat of instant decapitation. Being released, and returning 
to the city, he assured the inhabitants of the vanity of resistance. 
The victor approached his ancient home, advancing slowly, by 
reason of the vast multitudes who thronged around him. He 
repressed hostilities, which had been commenced by the fiery Kha- 
led, and entering the city, proceeded at once to the Caaba. Here 
he made the seven circuits of adoration, touching at each the sacred 
black stone inserted in the wall. He then threw down and des- 



300 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

troyed the three hundred and sixty-five idols which defiled its walls, 
not sparing even the images of Abraham and Ishmael. He drank 
from the well of Zem Zem, and appointed his uncle Al Abbas, who 
had presented him with the cup, as guardian to the sacred fount- 
ain — an office which his descendants retain to the present day. He 
treated his former enemies with much clemency and magnanimity, 
and proclaimed Mecca as an inviolable sanctuary, while the earth 
should endure. The fears of his friends from Medina, lest their 
city should be deserted for the new acquisition, were quieted by the 
assurance that he would never abandon those who had first espoused 
his forlorn and persecuted cause. The work of forcibly converting 
the neighbouring tribes was immediately commenced by his fierce 
lieutenants, Khaled and others. 



CHAPTER ? 



FROM THE CAPTURE OF MECCA TILL THE DEATH OF 
MAHOMET. 

While thus in the full tide of success, a formidable confederacy 
was formed against the power of Islam, by the powerful and warlike 
tribes of the mountains. The people of Tayef, who had formerly 
driven him ignominiously from their city, were at the head of this 
league ; and the various hostile tribes assembled in a valley between 
that city and Honein. Mahomet, with about twelve thousand men, 
marched against them. While passing through a deep and gloomy 
gorge in the mountains, his army was suddenly assailed by the 
enemy, who were posted on the heights above. A general panic 
took place. The Moslems turned and fled, amid the ill-suppressed 
exultation of the late unwilling converts, who accompanied them. 
They were finally rallied by Al Abbas, and returned to the scene of 
action. "The enemy had descended from the heights, and noAv a 
bloody conflict ensued in the defile. 'The furnace is kindling!' 
cried Mahomet, exultingly, as he saw the glitter of arms and flash 
of weapons. Stooping from his saddle, and grasping a handful of 



THE MAHOMETANS. 



301 



dust, he scattered it in the air toward tlie enemy. ' Confusion on 
their faces!' cried he; 'may this dust blind them.'"* The idolators 
were defeated, and took refuge in their camp and in the city of Tayef. 
The former was soon taken and plundered, but the city made such 
a determined resistance, as to defy all the engines of the assailant 
and the fanatical fury of his followers. He was compelled to raise 
the siege, and departed with an immense booty in camels, sheep, 
silver, and slaves. Malec, the chief of the enemy, was, however, 
soon after converted by liberal presents and restitution of spoils. 

Mahomet, having conciliated his lukewarm adherents by a politic 
distribution of plunder, returned to Mecca; and thence, having 
appointed a religious instructer and a governor, took the way to 
Medina. The birth of a son, named Ibrahim, at this time height- 
ened the joy of his successes; for he had long desired an heir to his 
name, his fame, and his spirit of prophecy. 

His influence and authority continued to spread in a wonderful 
manner. Tribe after tribe sent in its adhesion to his faith or 
authority. His talents for government were found equal to the 
emergency ; and he strengthened his power by taking liberal tithes, 
under the name of alms, from all true believers, and forced contri- 
butions, under the same title, from the subject tribes of infidels. 
Tayef, which longest withstood his arms, was finally compelled to 
yield, and the inhabitants were forced to witness the destruction of 
their idols, and, by the threat of instant massacre, relucantly to 
become unconditional converts to Islam. 

This formidable increase of power, with the hostilities near Muta, 
had, it is said, awakened the attention of Heraclius. who assembled 
a force on the borders of Arabia. Mahomet, on his part, resolved 
to carry the war into Syria, and, despite the torrid heat of the 
season, began to assemble his forces. To those who alleged the 
weather as an excuse for not serving, a pertinent revelation remarked 
that "the fire of hell was hotter than the desert." An army of 
thirty thousand men was mustered ; and, with the prophet in their 
midst, took the road to Syria. Although overcome with heat and 
thirst, he would not allow the army to encamp or rest in the cool 
region of Hedjar, on account of a marvellous story concerning the 
destruction of the inhabitants, to which he had listened in his youth. 
They arrived at last at Tabuc, a small town on the borders of the 
empire, and about half-way between Medina and Damascus. Several 
*Iiiving's "Life of Mahomet." 



302 'i'JtJE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

of the neighbouring princes submitted, and others were forcibly 
made tributary. Despite the zeal of Mahomet, who was bent on 
the invasion of Syria, his troops, disheartened by accounts of 
immense forces assembled against them, became unwilling to proceed 
further. No revelation announced the necessity of advancing ; and, 
with some reluctance, the prophet consented to a retreat, deferring 
the completion of his enterprise to a future period. The army 
returned laden with spoil, and those who had impeded the setting 
forth of the expedition were punished by excommunication. At 
this time died Abdalla Ibn Obba, the chief of the lukewarm party 
in Medina, called the "Hypocrites," and long a political opponent of 
Mahomet, The prophet was prevailed on to put up prayers for the 
deceased, but privately consoled himself and the orthodox with the 
assurance that it would be unavailing. 

The reverend law-giver found much greater difficulty in regulating 
the affairs of his household than of the nation. At one time, irri- 
tated by their clamorous jealousy, he abstained from the society 
of his wives for a whole month, and then, by special revelation, 
took as his companion the Coptic slave, who was the particular 
object of their suspicion. 

When the yearly resort to Mecca again occurred, he caused Ali 
to proclaim publicly to the pilgrims that, by an especial revealment, 
at the expiration of four months, no time or place, however sacred, 
should protect the idolaters. At the end of that time, no alterna- 
tive except submission to tribute, conversion, or extermination, was 
to be left to the unbelievers. This stringent regulation was soon 
enforced by various expeditions against the refractory tribes. Sub- 
missions came pouring in; and even the lieutenant of Heraclius, 
in Amon, gave in his submission. 

In the midst of these successes, Mahomet's exultation was deeply 
alloyed by the death of his only son Ibrahim, an infant of fifteen 
months, and the only hope of his house. His health was already 
greatly impaired; and feeling that he had little strength remaining, 
he resolved to expend it in a solemn pilgrimage to Mecca. On learn- 
ing this intention, devotees thronged from all parts of Arabia, to join 
in the pious undertaking. Accompanied by his nine wives, and 
escorted by more than an hundred thousand of his faithful followers, 
the prophet set out on his last pilgrimage. No enemies beset the 
way as formerly, for all Arabia was now submissive to the faith of 
Islam. Arrived at the Sacred City, he rigidly performed all the 



THE MAHOMETANS, 303 

accustomed rites, and slaughtered a great number of camels, accord- 
ing to custom, as a sacrifice. He preached and prayed long and 
fervently, and his words were recorded and treasured u.p as a guide 
to all true believers. 

After his return, his health became more and more impaired ; yet 
he prepared largely for his favourite project, the invasion of Syria 
and Palestine. In the eleventh year of the Hegira, a powerful army 
was assembled, and the command entrusted to Osama, a youth of 
twenty, the son of Zeid, whose devotion and death in the cause of 
the prophet procured this high honour for his offspring. The 
youthful general, after receiving the sacred banner from the hands 
of Mahomet, had marched only a few miles, when tidings came 
which arrested his advance. Mahomet had been taken violently 
ill. His disorder commenced with delirium. Starting from his 
couch at midnight, he called upon a slave to accompany him, say- 
ing that he was summoned by the dead in the public burying-place 
to come and pra}^ for them. Arrived in the great and lonely ceme- 
tery, he addressed its sleeping dwellers in words of wild, pathetic 
eloquence, and declared that he should soon be with them. His 
disorder increased, and became a burning fever, in which he 
exclaimed that he felt tormented by the poison of Khaibar. He 
recovered sufficiently to appear once more in public, prayed fer- 
vently, and exhorted all to whom he might have acted unjustly, to 
speak, and give him the opportunity for reparation. His last 
exhortations were eloquent with the language of piety, and remind 
us of the pure and simple doctrines which he preached, while yet 
untainted with sensuality and ambition. He died, apparently, in 
the full assurance of Paradise, and his deluded followers, frantic 
with grief, could hardly be persuaded that the object of their vener- 
ation had gone on the common path of mortality. They were 
consoled, and reassured in their faith by Abu Beker, whose friend- 
ship and long intimacy with their chief seemed to mark him as his 
fit successor. 

Mahomet died in the eleventh year of the Hegira, A. D. 632, 
having just completed his sixty-third year. His body, according to 
words which he had spoken, was buried on the very spot where he 
died, a grave being dug beneath the bed on which he breathed his 
last. The house adjoined the mosque, which, by enlargement in sub- 
sequent times, encloses the spot where his remains were deposited, 
and which is an object of pious veneration to all true Mussulmans. 



304 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

In estimating tlie true character of this extraordinary man, great 
difficulties are experienced. The records which we possess, espe- 
cially of his sayings, are of a somewhat unreliable character; and 
the Koran itself has, in the opinion of the best judges, been subjected 
to grievous interpolation and mutilation. His early career was 
certainly that of an unselfish and sincere enthusiast ; and the pre- 
cepts and theological maxims which he then promulgated, were 
mostly of a pure and elevated nature. The growing corruption of 
power seems to have dimmed, though it never entirely quenched 
the fire of his prophetical delusion. In the language of Mr. Irving, 
from whose interesting work many of these particulars are drawn, 
"If we are far from considering Mahomet the gross and impious 
impostor which some have represented him, so also are we indis- 
posed to give him credit for vast forecast, and for that deeply 
concerted scheme of universal conquest which has been ascribed to 
him. He was, undoubtedly, a man of great genius and a sugges- 
tive imagination, but it appears to us that he was in a great degree 
the creature of impulse and excitement, and very much at the mercy 
of circumstances. His schemes grew out of his fortunes, and not 
his fortunes out of his schemes. He was forty years old before he 
first broached his doctrines. He suffered year after year to steal 
away, before he promulgated them out of his own family. When 
he fled from Mecca,, thirteen years had elapsed from the announce- 
ment of his mission, and, firom being a wealthy merchant, he had 
sunk to be a ruined fugitive. When he reached Medina, he had no 
idea of the worldly power that awaited him ; his only thoiight was 
to build a humble mosque where he might preach ; and his only 
hope that he might be suffered to preach with impunity. When 
power suddenly broke upon him, he used it for a time in petty 
forays and local feuds. His military plans expanded with his 
resources." 

He appears to have been distinguished in the exercise of many 
private virtues. He was sober, abstemious, and so destitute of the 
vice of avarice, that, though able to command all the treasures of 
Arabia, he hardly left a coin at his death. With the exception of a 
too great susceptibility to female charms, he seems to have been 
singularly superior to all the allurements of sensuality. He did not 
disdain labour with his hands, performing cheerfully the meanest 
duties of his household. His justice, affability, and kindness of 
heart, endeared him to all his followers ; and he was remarkable for 



THE MAHOMETANS. gQg 

liis charity, even among the generous natives of his own land. To his 
last breath he exhibited an appearance of devotion, submission, and 
religious abstraction which cannot have been entirely feigned. In 
the language of his biographer, "It is difficult to reconcile such 
ardent, persevering piety, with an incessant system of blasphemous 
imposture; nor such pure and elevated and benignant precepts as 
are contained in the Koran, with a mind haunted by ignoble pas- 
sions, and devoted to the grovelling interests of mere mortality; 
and we find no other satisfactory mode of solving the enigma of 
his character and conduct, than by supposing that the ray of mental 
hallucination which flashed upon his enthusiastic spirit during his 
religious ecstasies in the midnight cavern of Mount Hara, continued 
more or less to bewilder him with a species of monomania to the 
end of his career, and that he died in the delusive belief of his 
mission as a prophet." 



CHAPTEH ?I 



THE CALIPHAT OF ABIT BEKER. THE WARS IN SYRIA. 

THE CAPTURE OP DAMASCUS, AND THE DEFEAT OF 
THE IMPERIAL FORCES: 

The prophet, though dead, had left his mantle of genius and 
fanaticism to several distinguished followers. His death was suc- 
ceeded by a career of invasion and conquest, the most rapid and 
wonderful which the world has ever witnessed. In less than ninety 
years from the time when their founder fled from Mecca, a ruined 
and persecuted man, his faith and his successors held sway over 
nearly all Southern Asia and Northern Africa; and alarmed the 
nations of Europe with a dread of the extinction of all Christian 
government. 

Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Mahomet, who had first openly 

espoused his cause, and had been declared his lieutenant, appeared, 

by natural right, his successor in government; but Abu Beker, the 

father of Ayesha, by his superior influence, obtained the oflice from 

20 



306 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the powerful cliiefs who held it in their hands. He assumed the 
modest title of caliph, or successor, a name which has distinguished 
some of the most brilliant dynasties of the East. 

The new sovereign was sixty-two years of age, and had been a 
companion of Mahomet in all his dangers and successes. He was 
sagacious, enterprising, and, like his master, wholly superior to the 
enticements of personal aggrandizement. On his accession, the 
empire of Islamism, freed from the terror inspired by the name of his 
predecessor, shrank suddenly into very narrow limits — Mecca, Medina, 
and Tayef alone remaining faithful to the Mahometan dominion. 
Not content with throwing off the yoke, and refusing to pay tribute, 
a large body of Arabs from the revolted tribes marched against 
Medina itself The renowned Khaled, ''the Sword of God," was 
despatched against them, at the head of four thousand five hundred 
men ; and soon defeated them, and beheaded Malec, their chief leader. 

His next expedition was against Moseilma, a rival prophet, who 
had acquired great power, and whose pretensions Mahomet himself 
had been unable to suppress. The Moslems were at first defeated, 
with a loss of twelve hundred men ; but being rallied by the indomit- 
able Khaled, finally gained the victory. Moseilma fell, fighting 
desperately, and ten thousand of his followers strewed the field. 
By the military skill and daring of the victor, all Arabia, within a 
year, was again brought under the rule of Islam. Abu Beker, 
firmly established in the caliphat, now commenced a compilation 
of the Koran, which heretofore had only possessed a scattered and 
partially traditionary existence. 

The caliph next resolved, in compliance with the dying wishes 
of his predecessor, to propagate the Mahometan faith in new regions 
by the sword. The opportunity was favourable, the Greek and Per- 
sian empires being exhausted by long and desolating wars. In the 
twelfth year of the Hegira, he summoned all the chiefs of Arabia 
to unite in the long-cherished conquest of Syria — that fertile land, 
which offered the richest inducements of plunder and enjoyment to 
the dwellers in the desert. An immense host of his followers 
thronged from all parts to obey the summons. The army was dis- 
missed from Medina, under Yezed, with injunctions not to commit 
any wilful waste or destruction, but, at all events, to enforce tribute 
or conversion. The Saracen chief set forth, and on his way defeated 
an advanced force of the Emperor Heraclius, killing twelve hund- 
red men, and despatching great booty to the caliph. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 3O7 

Other armies were speedily enlisted and sent in the same direction, 
one of them commanded b}^ Amru, formerly the witty satirist, and 
now one of the most distinguished supporters of Islam. The com- 
mand of the entire forces was at first entrusted to Abu Obeidah, 
and afterwards to Khaled, The latter, after a most brilliant cam- 
paign, in which he had conquered Irak, a Persian province, and 
defeated one Persian army after another, carried his standard, "the 
Black Eagle," to the banks of the Euphrates, and summoned the 
haughty monarch himself to pay tribute or embrace the faith. 
Train after train, laden with almost every description of spoil, had 
entered the gates of Medina. 

With fifteen hundred horse, the victorious commander hurried to 
the scene of action in Syria. The Moslems, with insufiicient force, 
were besieging the strong city of Bosra, and by a resolute sally of 
the imperial garrison, were suffering a bloody defeat. At this 
critical moment, the standard of Khaled was seen; and, charging 
desperately with his small force of cavalry, amid shouts of "Allah 
Achbar !"* he drove the enemy back into the city. After another 
furious and indecisive encounter, the place was taken through the 
treachery of Romanus, the governor, who at once embraced Islamism. 

The Moslems, elated with victory, now resolved to lay siege to the 
strong and ancient city of Damascus. Charmed with the fertility 
and beauty of the country, which seemed to them a foretaste of 
Paradise, these children of the., desert, nearly forty thousand in 
number, encamped before its walls. The garrison sallied forth to 
oppose them under two rival governors, Caloiis and Azrail, the 
former of whom had vowed to bring back the head of Khaled on 
the point of his spear. The Mahometan leader, however, engaged 
them successively in single combat, took them prisoners, and, on 
their refusal to embrace the faith of Mahomet, cut off their heads, 
and threw them over the walls into the city. The citizens, in alarm, 
would fain have bought off the invaders ; but were sternly refused 
any alternative except Islamism, tribute, or death. 

The Emperor Heraclius, who was at Antioch, on learning the 
condition of the city, instantly despatched to its relief a force of an 
hundred thousand men, commanded by Werdan, prefect of Emessa. 
A small force of a thousand men, which, under the champion Derar, 
was sent to harass their movements, was defeated, after desperate 
fighting; but Khaled, with most of his forces, sallied forth against 

*«God is Great." 



308 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the advancing enemy, and relieved his companions. Complete 
success attended the series of furious attacks which the Moslem hero 
made upon the divisions of the enemy, as one after another arrived 
on the field. "In this manner a hundred thousand troops were 
defeated, in detail, by less than a third of their number, inspired by 
fanatic valour, and led on by a skilful and intrepid chief. Thou- 
sands of the fugitives were killed in the pursuit : an immense booty, 
in treasure, arms, baggage, and horses, fell to the victors, and Khaled 
led back his army flushed with conquest, but fatigued with fighting 
and burthened with spoil, to resume the siege of Damascus." — 
Irvingh Mahomet and his Successes. 

Another army of seventy thousand men was forthwith levied to 
oppose the invaders, and was placed under command of Werdan, 
at Aiznadin. Khaled, on his part, summoning all the Moslem 
generals within call to meet him on the field, took up his march at 
once for the enemy's c^mp. Taking advantage of this diversion, 
ten thousand men, under command of a leader named Peter, and six 
thousand cavalry, under Paul, his brother, sallied from Damascus, 
and fell upon the rear of the retreating enemy, capturing much 
booty, and taking most of their women. Both, however, were finally 
routed by Khaled, and their heads struck off, as usual. 

The reinforcements of the Moslem commander arrived at the 
place of rendezvous with wonderful punctuality. The Christian 
host, disheartened by their previous defeat, vainly endeavoured to 
treat with the enemy — the haughty Arabian cutting short all nego- 
tiation with his three customary alternatives. He accepted, indeed, 
the proffer of a single combat with "Werdan. The latter, however, 
it is said, laid a scheme for the assassination of his opponent, which, 
being detected, he was by a counter-plot drawn into the power of 
his adversary, and instantly beheaded by a blow from the cimeter of 
Derar. His gory head, displayed on the point of a lance, dispirited 
his forces ; and Khaled, taking advantage of their discomfiture, 
charged with his accustomed impetuosity, and carried all before 
him. The imperial ranks were easily broken, and a general massacre 
ensued. The fugitives hurried off in all directions ; and an immense 
spoil rewarded the victors. 

Abda'lrahman, the son of the caliph, was at once despatched 
with the tidings to Medina. On learning the profitable nature of 
the warfare, crowds of Arabs flocked in to offer their services; but 
by the advice of Omar, these were rejected, except in the case of 



THE MAHOMETANS. gQg 

the tribe of Koreish, who, under Abu Sofian, were permitted to 
raise a force, and to share in the glory and profit of the war. 

The garrison of Damascus, though dismayed at the defeat of 
their friends and the return of the victorious besiegers, still held out 
stubbornly ; and under Thomas, their brave and able leader, repulsed 
the assailants from the wall with much vigour. This active and 
resolute commander, the son-in-law of the emperor, headed a des- 
perate sally from the gate ; but after fierce fighting, was driven back, 
with his men, into the city. At the dead of night, when the Mos- 
lems were sleeping, weary with combat, a fresh and furious sally was 
again made from each of the gates. Taken by surprise, the besiegers 
were at first slaughtered in all directions, but being at length rallied 
by the indefatigable Khaled, repulsed the Christians, who retreated 
within the walls, leaving several thousand of their number dead 
upon the field. 

Twelve months had now elapsed since the Saracens first sat down 
before the walls of Damascus, and the inhabitants vainly endeav- 
oured to treat with Khaled, who was bent on taking their city by 
storm. They had better fortune with the humane Abu Obeidah, 
the former general-in-chief, who gave them a written agreement, 
protecting their property and their religion. His forces were peace- 
ably admitted at one gate while those of Khaled, who had gained 
admission through the treachery of a priest, were entering at another, 
and making a general massacre. The influence of Obeidah was 
hardly suf&cient to induce his fierce colleague to stay the work of 
destruction, and abide by the agreement. The greater part of the 
inhabitants became tributary to the caliph ; but many, headed by 
Thomas, resolved to take refuge, with their families and all their 
portable wealth in Antioch. 

Khaled, who watched the departure of this melancholy multitude 
with evil eyes, had promised them three days of grace before 
receiving any molestation ; and at the expiration of that time, with 
four thousand horsemen, started in pursuit. After a tedious and 
terrible march over the rugged mountains of Lebanon, he finally 
overtook the exiles, who were resting in a flowery meadow, on their 
way to Constantinople. The Christians fought bravely, but Thomas, 
their admirable leader, being slain, were defeated, and all except one 
were killed or taken prisoners. Among the latter, was the beautiful 
wife of Thomas, the daughter of the Emperor Heraclius. As the 
Moslems returned with their booty and captives to Damascus, an 



310 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

aged bishop besought her release from Khaled. It was granted, but 
with an uncivil message to the emperor, that he would soon be him- 
self a captive in her place. 

The immense plunder which had been secured bj these various 
victories was now divided — four parts being shared among the 
officers and soldiers, and the fifth being despatched to the caliph at 
Medina. Abu Beker, however, was not destined to hear of the last 
signal triumph of the faith of Islam in his reign. He expired on 
the day that Damascus surrendered, having directed Omar, as 
Mahomet had done to himself, to perform the religious functions of 
his office in his stead. Omar, a stern, devout, and unambitious man, 
would have declined the honour and the responsibility; but the 
entreaties of the dying caliph prevailed with him. 

Abu Beker, the ancient companion of Mahomet, and the first of 
his successors, expired in the sixty-fourth year of his age, having 
reigned a little more than two years. He was universally lamented 
by his subjects, to whom his equity, moderation, and private virtues 
had justly endeared him. 



CHAPTEH ?n. 

THE CALIPHAT OP OMAR. THE CAPTURE OF EM ESS A, 

BAALBEC, JERUSALEM, ANTIOCH, AND CESAREA. 
FINAL CONQUEST OF SYRIA. 



The new caliph, who, in compliance with the wishes of his pre- 
decessor, had been readily elected to his office, was the father of 
Hafsa, a wife of the prophet. He was at this time fifty -three years 
of age, and was unsvirpassed for strength, valour, and fanaticism in 
the Mahometan faith. Bigotry apart, his justice was exemplary; 
and his sincerity was fully proved by his abstinence from sensuality, 
and by the rigid self-denial which characterized his entire career. 
He assumed the title of "Commander of the Faithful," a name 
inherited by his successors, and since ado23ted by other distinguished 
Eastern potentates. 



THE MAHOMETANS. ^-^^ 

Klialed, whose rash and unscrupulous character was displeasing 
to him, was forthwith deprived of the command of the Syrian army, 
and Abu Obeidah, a man of greater virtue and less military talent, 
was substituted in his place. The change was highly unpopular 
among the soldiers; but Khaled, with great magnanimity, enlisted 
zealously under the command of his new chief, who in turn, aware 
of his courage and abilit}^, treated him with the highest deference. 
The new commander, after gaining considerable plunder by a vic- 
tory which Khaled obtained over the Christians at Abyla, sat down 
before the wealthy city of Emessa (the modern Hems). The citi- 
zens, by a heavy ransom, purchased a truce for one year, and the 
inhabitants of the neighbouring region, submitting to the mild 
terms of Abu Obeidah, enrolled themselves in great numbers as 
tributaries of the caliph, 

Omar, however, displeased at this want of activity in conquest, 
sent a reproachful missive to his general, who, in consequence, 
leaving Khaled with a part of the forces near Emessa, marched with 
the remainder upon Baalbeo. This strong and beautiful city, built, 
it is said, by Solomon, and containing some of the most splendid 
remains of antiquity, was situated in the great valley which lies 
between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. It was a place of much 
wealth and commerce, and promised a valuable spoil. Herbis the 
governor, on learning of the approach of the Moslem forces, sallied 
out to meet them, but was repulsed, and driven back into the city 
with considerable loss. The place was summoned to surrender, but 
the governor, smarting with wounds and -defeat, tore the letter in 
pieces, and deigned no reply. A brave and successful repulse of 
the assailants inspirited the garrison to make a fresh sally, in which 
they made great slaughter among their opponents, who were taken 
by surprise. Herbis, however, in a second similar attempt, was cut 
off from the city, and compelled to surrender it upon very severe 
conditions. The Saracens took possession, in the year A. D. 636. 

The victorious general returned at once to Emessa, where the 
year of truce had expired, and, "In the name of the most Merciful 
God," (the customary Moslexxi formula,) summoned the garrison to 
surrender. A bold and successful sally was the reply; and Obei- 
dah, seeing the difficulty of reducing the place by force, had resort 
to stratagem. Promising to carry his arms elsewhere, he purchased 
of the Greeks so many provisions, that their supplies were nearly 
exhausted. He then left the city, and seized upon the towns of 



312 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

Arrestan and Shaizar; but soon returned, and again invested 
Emessa. The defenders, unprepared for a siege, were compelled to 
try an engagement. The governor, a man of great courage and of 
gigantic size, took the sacrament in public, caroused all night, and 
sallied furiously against the Moslems in the morning. The fight 
lasted desperately all day, without any decisive result; but on the 
following day, by a feigned retreat, the Greeks were thrown into 
confusion, and utterly routed, with the loss of their commander and 
a great number of fighting men. 

Emessa surrendered ; but the Moslems were unable to reap the 
fruits of their victory. An immense army of the Greeks was 
approaching, and by advice even of the intrepid Khaled, the 
invaders retreated to Yermouk, on the borders of Arabia. The 
Emperor Heraclius, justly alarmed for the safety of Syria, had again 
levied a great force, consisting of eighty thousand of his subjects 
and sixty thousand friendly Arabs, and had despatched them 
against the enemy, under a distinguished general, named Manuel. 
As this formidable force marched against the retreating Moslems, it 
inflicted every injury on the provinces which had submitted to the 
latter, and had become tributary. 

A negotiation which Manuel had offered, as he approached, was 
rejected by Abu Obeidah, and a messenger was despatched to the 
caliph Omar, at Medina, entreating speedy reinforcement. Eight 
thousand fresh troops were, accordingly, at once despatched to his 
assistance, and these on their way defeated a prefect of the emperor 
with much slaughter, and arrived at Yermouk with the heads of 
their enemies displayed in great numbers on the points of their 
lances. A personal interview between Manuel and Khaled, the 
real commander of the Moslem host, led to no result; and both par- 
ties engaged in a fierce battle. From the valour and number of the 
combatants, this important struggle was prolonged in a desperate 
manner for several successive days— the discipline and steadiness 
of the Grecian phalanx proving almost insurmountable, even by the 
furious fanaticism of the Moslems. The Christians were finally 
defeated, with the loss of their general, and with a terrible slaughter 
(A. D. 636). 

After this signal success, the caliph determined, by the advice of 
Ali, to gain possession of Jerusalem. This celebrated . city (at that 
time called J51ia, from the Emperor ^lius Adrian, who had rebuilt 
it) was then, as now, an object of deep veneration, not only to the 



THE MAHOMETANS. 3]^3 

Jews and Ctiristians, but to tlie Moslems, on account of its sacred 
associations. The latter, indeed, considered that they had an espe- 
cial claim upon it, as being the place to which their prophet (as he 
averred) had made his famous nocturnal journey, and whence, in 
company with the angel Gabriel, he had explored the Seven Heav- 
ens. It was strongly fortified, and the defenders, relying on the 
sanctity of their city, and emboldened by the advantage of their 
position, withstood for four months the attack of Abu Obeidah and 
his whole army. 

The Patriarch Sempronius finally consented to a capitulation, if 
the caliph would come from Medina, and receive it in person. Omar, 
viewing the religious, as well as the political importance of the place, 
consented, and having appointed Ali as his temporary vicar, set out 
in the simplest manner on his important mission. This mighty 
potentate travelled on a red camel, with a pair of saddle bags con- 
taining a few dried dates and sodden grain for provision, with a 
wooden dish, and a leathern bottle filled with water. In this unpre- 
tending style he approached the Holy City, dictating on his way 
the most absolute and peremptory commands. On his arrival, 
Jerusalem instantly surrendered, upon such severe conditions as 
the Mahometan conquerors were wont to impose upon the van- 
quished. The Christian rites and places of worship were only 
suffered to exist under the most degrading terms, and the most 
slavish deference to the followers of Islam was sternly enforced. 
The lives and property of the citizens, however, were spared. The 
conqueror was politely conducted by Sempronius through the vari- 
ous places of interest in the sacred city ; but when the Arab, in his 
patched and dirty garments of sheepskin, seated himself in the 
Church of the Resurrection, the worthy patriarch (probably in a 
tongue unknown to his guest) groaned forth, in the bitterness of his 
spirit, that the "abomination of desolation," foretold by the prophet 
Daniel, had come at last, and was fairly "set up in the holy place" 
(A. D. 637). 

Omar, after having founded a mosque on the site of Solomon's 
temple, and given instructions to his generals for the complete con- 
quest of all Syria and Egypt, returned to Medina in the same quiet 
and unpretending manner in which he had left it. Abvi Obeidah 
marched for Aleppo, levying rich contributions on the terrors of the 
intervening country. Youkenna, who commanded the citadel of 
that wealthy place, was a man of most crafty, warlike, and furious 



314 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

disposition. He marched forth with twelve thousand men, and 
surprised an advanced guard of the Moslems, which he cut to pieces 
or dispersed. On learning, however, that the more peaceful and 
wealthy citizens of Aleppo had made a private treaty with the 
assailants, he turned back in a rage, put three hundred of them to 
the sword, and with a sweep of his cimeter cut off the head of his 
own brother, Johannas, who was vainly endeavouring to mitigate 
his fury. 

A desperate battle with the approaching Moslems, under Khaled, 
forthwith ensued. Three thousand of Youkenna's troops were slain, 
and he was compelled to retreat within the castle, which was strongly 
fortified. An assault upon this was unsuccessful, and iifty prisoners, 
whom the ferocious governor took in a sally, were beheaded on the 
walls, and their heads thrown down among the besiegers. Three 
hundred of the garrison, who were soon after captured by the Mos- 
lems, shared a similar fate, by way of retaliation. The craft and 
valour of Youkenna enabled him to defend this almost impregnable 
fortress for more than half a year ; but it was finally taken by sur- 
prise, and the cruel and unprincipled chief, with several of his 
officers, embraced the Moslem religion, and thus secured their wives 
and property from the greediness of the victors. 

Like most of the numerous renegades to Mahometanism, his 
zeal, when once fairly embarked, outstripped that of its legitimate 
supporters. By the most outrageous treachery toward his former 
Christian associates, he gained important advantages for the enemy ; 
and even so far won the confidence of the Emperor Heraclius, at 
Antioch, as to obtain the command of that important city, and of 
the army stationed there. A gang of renegades, by whom he was 
accompanied, furthered his plots. Abu Obeidah advanced against 
this city, the capital of Syria, with a formidable force, subduing all 
the country on his way. The "Iron Bridge," a strong post, com- 
manding the passage of the Orontes, was treacherously surrendered 
by the garrison, and Antioch was thus left unprotected against the 
advance of the enemy. The Moslem troops approached the walls, 
and the emperor, completely disheartened by learning the treason 
of Youkenna, fled privately to the sea-shore, and set sail for Con- 
stantinople. His generals made a brave defence, which, however, 
the treachery of Youkenna and the valour of their adversaries ren- 
dered of no avail, and the city, paying an enormous ransom for 
safety from pillage, submitted to the enemy (A. D. 638). 



THE MAHOMETANS. §15 

Abu Obeidah, who, for a Maliometan, was a strict moralist and 
disciplinarian, prohibited his followers from any intercourse with 
the Grecian females, whose beauty was so attractive to these rude 
sons of the desert. The worthy caliph, however, says Mr. Irving, 
wept on hearing of this piece of severity to his faithful adherents, 
and seating himself on the ground, forthwith wrote a letter, (doubt- 
less much to the satisfaction of the army,) allowing the fullest liberty 
in those regards which the most zealous polygamist could desire. 

Fresh successes soon repaid the enterprise of the invaders. 
Khaled had been carrying his victorious arms far to the eastward ; 
and Amru, with the forces under his command, advanced against 
Ceesarea, where Constantine, the emperor's son, was stationed with 
a large army. The prince held a personal conference with the 
Mahometan leader, but to no purpose — the latter insisting that the 
ancestors of the Arabs had been expelled from the pleasant land of 
Syria to the desert, and that they were only regaining their rightful 
possessions. Islamism, tribute, or the sword, were sternly presented 
as the only alternatives. Constantine, fearing to encounter the 
enemy with his dispirited forces, shut himself up in the walls of 
Csesarea. 

Youkenna, by almost inconceivable craft and treachery, had 
again managed to deceive his former friends, the Christians, and 
had thus gained possession of the ports of Tripoli and Tyre, together 
with the imperial fleet, and many munitions of war. The prince 
taking alarm, fled, with all his treasure, to Constantinople, and the 
city speedily surrendered, paying a heavy ransom to the victor. 

Other important places followed the example, and thus, after a 
contest of six years, all Syria, in the seventeenth year of the Hegira 
(A. D. 639), fell into the hands of its Moslem invaders. Abu Obei- 
dah, and other distinguished ofiicers, did not long survive this event, 
being carried off by a pestilence, which soon desolated the country. 
Khaled, "the Sword of God," so long renowned as the bravest, 
fiercest, and most fanatical chief of the new religion, died in 
poverty and disgrace, under the displeasure of the caliph. He 
was deeply lamented by the soldiery, whom he had so often led to 
victory. 



glQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 



CHAPTEH 7111. 

THE CALIPHAT OF OMAR CONTINUED. CONQUEST OF EGYPT 

AND OF PERSIA. DEATH OF OMAR. 

In pursuance of the orders of the caliph, Amru, with only five 
thousand men, next marched against the once powerful kingdom of 
Eg3rpt, now a province of the Greek empire. He took Farwak (the 
ancient Pelusium) after a month's siege, and thence moved against 
Memphis, a strong city, then situated near the site of the modern 
Cairo, but of which hardly a vestige now remains. The Arabs, 
unprovided with military engines, and bravely resisted by the 
Greek garrison, spent seven months fruitlessly in endeavouring to 
reduce the city. A reinforcement of four thousand men was then 
despatched by Omar to their assistance; and the place was soon 
after taken by the treachery of Mokawkas, the governor, an Egyp- 
tian Copt, who secretly detested the Grecian rule. Tribute was 
forthwith levied on the province, and Amru, with his army, took 
the road to the renowned city of Alexandria. It was only an hun- 
dred and twenty-five miles distant, yet the Moslems met such a 
determined resistance from the imperial forces on their way, that it 
was twenty-two days before they arrived at the walls. This popu- 
lous and wealthy city was strongly fortified, garrisoned by Greeks, 
and open to assistance from the sea. 

The slender force of Amru seemed entirely inadequate to his 
undertaking ; yet he summoned the garrison, in the usual haughty 
terms, to surrender. They, in return, made a furious sally, and 
much desperate fighting ensued. The Arab chief took a strong 
citadel by storm ; the whole contest became concentrated on this 
spot, and he was taken prisoner, and carried before the governor. 
The latter, unaware of his rank, was induced, by the artful repre- 
sentations of one of his fellow-captives, to release him, and the 
rejoicing shouts of the besiegers notified the garrison of their cre- 
dulity and loss. The siege was still obstinately contested for 
fourteen months, during which time the Moslem army, repeatedly 
reinforced, lost twenty-three thousand men. 

Nothing, however, could resist the fanatical valour and perse- 



THE MAHOMETANS. 33^7 

verance of the besiegers. Alexandria was at length taken, and its 
Grecian defenders dispersed by sea and land. Leaving a small 
garrison to guard the new acquisition, Amru hastened with most 
of his forces after the fugitives. Those in the fleet taking advan- 
tage of this circumstance, recaptured the city, and put most of its 
Moslem defenders to the sword. The invader, sufficiently vexed at 
his negligence, instantly returned; and after a fierce assault, again 
gained possession of the place, and drove the Greeks to their ships 
(A. D. 640). 

This new and splendid acquisition of the Mahometan arms 
greatly increased the wealth and resources of the caliph. The city, 
as the victor stated in his letter to Omar, contained four hundred 
theatres, four thousand palaces, and five thousand baths, and was 
filled with wealth and magnificence. Plunder was strictly forbidden, 
and an account of all valuable articles was taken, for the benefit of 
the cause of Islam. The wonderfnl collection of manuscripts, 
known as the Alexandrian library, was brought to the notice of 
the victor by a learned man, named John the Grammarian, who 
solicited that they might be bestowed upon him. Amru referred 
the matter to the caliph, who, with the sternness and bigotry charac- 
teristic of an illiterate Mahometan, ordered their destruction, alleging 
that if they were in conformity with the Koran, they were useless ; 
if opposed to it, pernicious. Literature has doubtless experienced 
an irreparable loss in the destruction of this noble collection, which 
has been estimated at half a million of books, and which served for 
six months as fuel for the numerous baths in the city. 

After the fall of its capital, all Egypt submitted, and was made 
tributary to its conquerors. Heraclius, already in a decline, was so 
afiected by the loss of his province, that he underwent a paroxysm, 
which speedily proved fatal. His son Constantine succeeded him 
in the remains of the empire. 

Amru, now in full possession of the newly-acquired territory, 
governed it with much justice and wisdom. In a severe famine 
which afflicted Arabia, he despatched great quantities of grain to 
the assistance of his countrymen ; and, to further the means of com- 
munication, caused a canal, which had been commenced by the 
Emperor Trajan, to be dug from the Nile to the Eed Sea. (This 
splendid work of public utility, however, fell into disuse, and was 
suffered to go to ruin, after the removal of the caliphat from Medina 
to Damascus.) 



318 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

The Persian empire, on the frontiers of which Khaled, in the 
reign of Abu Beker, had gained some signal successes, had been 
for some time in a state of great distraction, and numerous pre- 
tenders had successively gained the crown for brief periods. In 
the year A. D. 632, Arzemia, the daughter of Khosru II., a woman 
of great beauty and talent, had been called to the throne. Mosenna, 
who had succeeded Khaled in the command of the Eastern forces, 
was appointed emir or governor of Sewad, the Persian province 
already conquered; but for some time no fresh acquisition was 
made. Omar, to stir up the spirit of enterprise, had finally sent a 
new commander, named Abu Obeidah Sakfi, with reinforcements, 
to carry on the war. 

The latter, after defeating the forces of Narsi, a Persian prince, 
was called on to encounter a formidable army despatched by Arzemia 
and headed by an able general named Rustam. This force was 
strengthened by thirty elephants, and encouraged by the presence 
of the "sacred banner," which was regarded with the deepest 
veneration, and on which the fate of Persia was supposed to depend. 
The Moslems, only nine thousand in number, threw a bridge across 
the Euphrates, and boldly attacked the vastly superior force of the 
enemy. Sakfi, while fighting bravely, was crushed to death by an 
elephant, which he had wounded; his army was entirely defeated, 
and four thousand were slain or drowned in the Euphrates. 
Mosenna rallied a small number, and sent to Medina, entreating 
immediate assistance. Dissensions in the Persian camp alone saved 
the Moslems from further discomfiture (A. D. 634). 

The Arab chief, being reinforced, for some time confined himself 
to predatory excursions ; but was finally brought to an engagement 
by Mahran, a general of the queen, who, with twelve thousand 
cavalry, had been sent against him. The battle commenced unfavour- 
ably for the Moslems, and Mosenna, tearing his beard with vexation, 
with dif&culty rallied his discomfited troops. He finally put the 
Persians to flight, killing their general with his own hand. He soon 
after gained an immense booty by plundering the fair at Bagdad, 
then a mere village, but since the renowned capital of the Abassides. 

Arzemia being put to death by her discontented nobles, Yezde- 
gird, a youth of fifteen, was placed upon the Persian throne. 
Rustam, her principal murderer, was placed at the head of a power- 
ful army, and despatched against the encroaching Arabs. To oppose 
him, Saad, a distinguished leader, and an ancient friend of the 



THE MAHOMETANS. gig 

prophet, was sent with a choice body of troops from Medina, Being 
joined b\^ many recruits, he found himself, on his arrival at the 
Moslem camp, in command of thirty thousand men. Mosenna, 
three days after, expired. The new commander, before entering 
upon hostilities, despatched certain discreet and ancient messengers 
to the Persian court, making the customary summons, and propound- 
in o- the usual alternatives. These envoys were received with some 
moderation; but were dismissed loaded with sacks of earth, as the 
only portion of Persian soil that would be accorded to the invaders. 
These they quietly transferred to the backs of their camels, and 
presented them to Saad as an earnest and omen of their future con- 
quest and possession. 

The hostile armies encountered on the plains of Kadesia, not far 
from the Euphrates. The Persian host far outnumbered their oppo- 
nents; but were greatly inferior in activity, personal skill, and 
fanatical courage. Their elephants were driven back, and the 
Moslems received a reinforcement in the first day of the battle — 
called, from this circumstance, the Day of Succour. On the third 
day the Moslems were again inspirited and their enemies disheart- 
ened by the arrival of a pretended reinforcement, which was in 
reality a detachment which the craftj?- Saad had instructed to make 
its appearance on the road from Damascus. The combat, amid 
clouds of dust, was continued furiously all that day, and was even, 
by the desperate exertions of Rustam, protracted through the night. 
On the fourth, exhausted and wounded, he was killed; his head, 
elevated on a lance, struck terror into his soldiers, who dispersed 
and fled. Thirty-seven thousand of the Persians had fallen in this 
fatal contest. The Moslems had lost less than a fifth of that number. 
The plunder was immense, and the Sacred Standard, covered with 
the richest jewels, was taken by the victors (A. D. 686). 

Tribute was instantly levied on the conquered region, and mosques 
• were erected in all directions. By order of Omar, the city of Bas- 
sora, ever since a celebrated mart of commerce, was founded at the 
junction of the Tigris and the Euphrates. The Persians were com- 
pletely disheartened, and Saad pursued his conquests almost without 
resistance. With sixty thousand men, he marched upon Madayn, 
their capital, formerly the famous and classic Ctesiphon, which had 
once repulsed the arms of the victorious Eomans themselves. 
Yezdegird and his court fled in a shameful panic, and the wonder- 
ing Arabs entered the splendid city, which they sacked and pillaged 



320 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

of immense treasures. The spoil was so great, that each of this 
numerous host received twelve hundred dirheras of silver; and nine 
hundred camels were required to convey to Medina the fifth part 
allotted to the caliph. A silken carpet, covered with gems, was 
among his portion, which, by advice of Ali, was cut into equal 
pieces, and divided among the chiefs (A. D. 637). 

Hashem, the brother of Saad, with twelve thousand men, was 
next despatched in pursuit of the fugitive Yezdegird. After a siege 
of six months, distinguished by desperate fighting, he succeeded in 
taking Jalula, in which the remains of the Persian army had taken 
refuge. The unfortunate monarch retreated through the mountains 
into Eei, an ancient city, the Eages of Scripture. The zeal of 
the Mahometan chief for further conquest was, however, for the 
present, repressed by the prudence of Omar. By order of the caliph, 
the city of Cufa was founded on the western bank of the Euphrates, 
Madayn being totally dismantled for the sake of its materials, and 
almost bodily carried away. The luxury of Saad's residence, how- 
ever, coming to the ears of the caliph, he despatched a messenger 
to burn it, who punctually fulfilled his orders — the general, with that 
unswerving obedience which as yet marked the Mahometan charac- 
ter, removing to a more modest abode. 

Hormuzan, the satrap of Ahwaz or Susiana, who lived in almost 
royal state and authority, next attempted to check the increasing 
power of the Arabs, but was repeatedly defeated, and was forced to 
surrender great portion of his territories. Again commencing 
hostilities, he was again defeated, and took refuge in his fortress of 
Susa, where, after a brave defence of six months, he was compelled 
by treachery to surrender. He was despatched to Medina, when 
Omar, with characteristic sternness and simplicity, gave him an 
instant choice between Islamism and decapitation. He embraced the 
former, and was received into the confidence and favour of the caliph. 

Saad being suspended from his command, the youthful monarch 
of Persia took fresh courage; and summoned his available forces 
from every part of the empire to make one grand and final effort 
for the expulsion of the intruders. The chiefs of the yet uncon- 
quered provinces called out their forces, which, to the number of an 
hundred and fifty thousand, were assembled at Nehavend, not far 
from the ancient Ecbatana. 

Omar would now fain have taken the field in person, but was 
dissuaded by his counsellors, and by their advice the command was 



THE MAHOMETANS. 321 

bestowed upon Nu'man Ibn Mukry. Firuzan, the Persian com- 
mander, though greatly superior to the Arabs in the number of his 
troops, intrenched himself at Nehavend in a strong position, resolved 
to tire out his enemies by delay. The latter for two months vainly 
endeavoured to effect an engagement with their adversaries; but 
finally, by a feigned retreat, drew them a considerable distance jfrom 
their intrenchments. The Moslem chief having prayed, like some 
classic hero of old, for the crown of martyrdom, as well as that of 
victory, turned, and furiously attacked the pursuing enemy. Both 
his wishes were granted ; he fell, after seeing the Persians completely 
routed. An immense slaughter was made, and one hundred thousand 
of the defeated army are said to have perished in the battle and the 
flight. This contest, which decided the fate of Persia, and which is 
called in Arabian chronicles, the "Victory of Victories, " occurred A. D. 
641, only twenty-one years after the flight of the prophet to Medina. 

Further victories ensued, and Hamadan, the ancient Ecbatana, 
and the second city in Persia, was taken^ after a desperate battle, 
which lasted for three days. Eei, bravely defended by a Persian 
noble left by the emperor, was also, after an unavailing resistance, 
taken by treachery. Fresh conquests were made. Tabaristan and 
Azerbijan, the land of the Fire- worshippers, were speedily over- 
come and made tributary. The temples and altars of the latter 
were overthrown. . A campaign was also made in the mountains of 
the Caucasus, where, however, a brave and warlike people, the 
ancestors of the present Turks, made a stubborn and successfal 
resistance. The Moslems were defeated and compelled to retreat, 
with the loss of Abda'lrahman, their leader. 

After witnessing these brilliant successes, and having reigned 
triumphantly for more than ten years, the Caliph Omar was assas- 
sinated in the mosque by one Firuz, a fire-worshipper, and a slave at 
Medina. Though mortally wounded, he summoned strength to 
finish the prayer in which he was engaged ; and was then borne to 
his house, thanking God that he had not fallen by the hand of a 
Moslem. He refased to nominate a successor, but appointed a 
council of six;, by whom the matter should be determined. His 
friends comforted him with the remembrance of his justice and 
impartiality. He entreated them to testify as much at the day of 
judgment, and, for greater security, exacted firom them a written 
testimonial, to be buried with him in the grave. He expired in the 
sixty -third year of his age. 
21 



322 ' THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

During tlie reign of this extraordinary man, who combined the 
most simple and almost barbarous manners with the most far-sighted 
views and the most wonderful control over the minds of men, the 
empire of Islam laid strong and deep the foundation of its greatness. 
Syria, Egypt, and Persia had been successively and effectively sub- 
dued; and the treasure and tribute from the conquered provinces 
afforded means and incentives for yet wider schemes of empire and 
dominion. No event in history is half so singular as that a few 
illiterate and semi-barbarous Arabs should, in the course of a few 
years, gain and successively rule such distant and extensive regions. 
No doubt there was something in the creed which impelled them 
singularly adapted to the genius and the capability of the race ; but 
that the talent for government and the personal influence which is 
indispensable in new empires should be possessed by each of these 
fellow-fugitives of the prophet, shows, indeed a most remarkable 
coincidence of men and circumstances. 



THE CALIPHAT OF OTHMAN. THE INVASION OP NOETHEEN 

AFEICA. NAYAL SUCCESSES OE THE MOSLEMS. 

The six councillors selected by Omar had all been intimate asso- 
ciates of the prophet, and appointed one of their number, Othman, 
his former secretary, to the caliphat. He had been the companion 
of Mahomet in the Hegira, and had successively married two of his 
daughters. He was now seventy years of age, generous and charit- 
able, but inclined to nepotism and favouritism. 

In the commencement of his reign, the conquest of Persia was 
completed. Assyria and Mesopotamia were speedily subdued, and 
the proud cities of Ispahan and Istakar were brought under the 
sway of Islam. The unfortunate Yezdegird, flying from his enemies, 
led a wandering life, with his shadow of a court, for many years, 
but was finally put to death, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. 
His kingdom became the undisputed territory of the caliphs. 

The weakness and favouritism of Othman were soon manifest. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 



323 



He displaced from the government of Egypt the brave and politic- 
Amru, who had conquered it, and who was universally popular, and 
appointed in his place Abdallah Ibn Saad, his own foster-brother. 
Taking advantage of the public discontent, Constantine despatched 
a fleet and army, and succeeded in retaking Alexandria. Here- 
upon, Amru Avas again reinstated in his command, and, after an 
obstinate resistance of the Greeks, again took the city, and threw 
down its walls. Having accomplished this, he was again displaced, 
and Abdallah once more appointed in his stead. 

The latter, emulous of his renown, determined to exalt his own 
fame by some new and brilliant expedition. The northern part of 
Africa, after experiencing strange vicissitudes of government, and 
being successively under the control of the Carthagenians, the 
Romans, and the Vandals, was now a province of the Eastern Empire.*^ 
Abdallah, with forty thousand Arabs, supplied with camels, crossed 
the sandy deserts of Lybia, and after a fatiguing march arrived 
before the strong city of Tripoli. A Greek force, which was sent to 
reinforce it, was surprised on the shore, and defeated with great 
slaughter. Gregorius, the Roman praetor, with an immense body of 
troops, hastily levied, encountered the invaders under the walls of 
the city. The battle, desperately fought, was continued for several 
days, but was finally decided by the valour of Zobeir, a noble Arab, 
of the tribe of Koreish, who arrived at a critical moment, with a 
small reinforcement. Gregorius was slain, and his army was pur- 
sued to the city of Safetula, which was taken by the victors. 

The forces of Abdallah, were, however, too much reduced to 
enable him to maintain his conquests ; and he returned to Egypt, 
having acquired great booty. 

Hitherto, the Moslems, restrained by Omar, had obtained no naval 
advantages. Moawyah Abu Sofian, a son of the ancient enemy of the 
prophet, had been appointed by Omar as emir or governor of Syria, 
and by permission of Othman, in the twenty-seventh year of the 
Hegira, launched a fleet upon the Mediterranean. He soon gained 
possession of the island of Cyprus, belonging to the emperor, and made 
it tributary. After further successes, he encountered Constantine him- 
self, while cruising with a large fleet in the Phoenician Sea, defeated 
him, and compelled him to seek safety in flight. Among other exploits, 
he took the island of Rhodes, and barbarously threw down the cele- 
brated colossal statue, which stood at the entrance of the harbour. 

* Sometimes called the Greek, and sometimes the Roman Empire. 



324 "^HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

In the midst of these successes, Othman, from his favouritism, 
and the prodigality with which he lavished the public spoil upon 
his attendants, had become exceedingly odious to great numbers of 
the Faithful. Other causes augmented this ill-feeling, and a certain 
converted Jew, named Ibn Caba, made a seditious journey through 
the various provinces, fomenting the discontent, and inciting the 
disaffected to appear in force at Medina, under pretence of a pil- 
grimage to Mecca. At the appointed time great numbers, from all 
the provinces, made their appearance, and summoned the aged 
caliph to redress their wrongs or to quit the high office which he 
occupied. 

At first he endeavoured by submission to allay the storm, and 
from the pulpit of the mosque made a public profession of peni- 
tence. He also made many liberal promises and donations, and, to 
gratify the malcontents, consented to recall Abdallah, and put in his 
place Mahomet, the brother of Ayesha, who had been the favourite 
wife of the prophet. The new governor, however, on his way, 
intercepted a slave, bearing a letter to Abdallah, purporting to be 
from the caliph, and ordering the execution of the new emir, and 
the imprisonment of the Egyptian deputies. Mahomet turned back 
furiously to Medina. Othman averred that the letter was a forgery 
of some enemy, and refused to give up his secretary, Merwan, the 
object of popular fury. In spite of the efforts of Ali, Zobeir, and 
Telha, an old companion of the prophet, the aged caliph was 
besieged in his house, and soon after murdered by a ferocious mob, 
among whom was Mahomet himself His body lay exposed for 
three days, and was finally buried without funeral ceremonies. This 
unfortunate sovereign had reigned twelve years, and was eighty two 
years old at the time of his death, which occurred in the year 
A. D. 655. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 325 



ij jJ3j dX if Jj ^ dJi lA) 



THE CALIPHAT OF ALL THE REBELLION OP 3I0AWYAH. 

DEATH OF ALL CALIPHAT OF HIS SON HASSAN. 

Ali, who had. married Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, had 
been bj many considered, from the first, as the rightful inheritor of 
his honours. He had been the only one who, at the first public 
announcement at Mecca of the divine pretensions of Mahomet, had 
publicly espoused his cause. He had been at that time nominated 
by the prophet as his vizier and vicegerent, and by his undaunted 
courage in the cause, had gained the title of " the Lion of God." His 
eloquence and generosity had endeared him to the people. Zobeir, 
Telha, and Moawyah were all ambitious of the distinction; but the 
deputies, fearful of a disruption of the Moslem power, demanded 
the instant election of a new caliph. All opposition succumbed to 
the urgency of the moment, and Ali, with the apparent consent of 
all, was publicly inaugurated in his high office. 

At the very outset of his reign he was surrounded with difficulty 
and opposition. Ayesha, his ancient enemy, with Telha and Zobeir, 
set out for Mecca under pretence of pilgrimage, but in reality to 
excite an insurrection. The bloody garment of Othman had been 
sent to Syria, where the Moslems were frantic with rage at his mur- 
der, and laid the blame upon his successor. The disappointed Moaw- 
yah openly fomented their anger, and the new governor, whom Ali 
despatched to supersede him, found the province in open rebellion, 
and was compelled to return. Those whom he had sent to Persia 
and to Egypt, met a similar reception. Moawyah, in token of con- 
tempt, returned a blank answer to the letter of the caliph requiring 
his allegiance. An army of sixty thousand men stood ready to 
enforce his pretensions to the chief authority. 

Ayesha and her allies having gathered a force of six thousand 
men at Mecca, took the road to Bassora, avowing their determina- 
tion to revenge the death of Othman. On their arrival before the 
walls of that city, the inhabitants, who were divided into two fac- 
tions, held a furious dispute in the mosque, and ended by throwing 
dust in each others' faces — a common oriental mode of exhibiting 



326 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

displeasure. They repaired without the walls, where Ajesha (the 
"Mother of the Faithful'') harangued them from her camel in the 
shrillest tones. More dust was thrown, and a fight ensued, which 
lasted until the hour of prayer separated the combatants. The 
place, however, was taken by surprise, on a stormy night, and the 
unfortunate governor, with his beard and eyebrows plucked out, 
was dismissed to make his complaints before the perplexed and 
embarrassed caliph. 

To suppress this insurrection, the latter sallied from Medina with 
a small force, which by the time he reached Bassora, amounted to 
thirty thousand men. The rebellious chiefs, softened by his mild- 
ness and eloquence, would have drawn back, but the malignant 
spirit of Ayesha precipitated a contest. On her gTeat camel Alascar, 
she mingled in the thickest of the fight, encouraging her troops. 
Telha was slain, expressing his repentance, and renewing his alle- 
giance with his dying breath. Zobeir, in sorrow of heart, left the 
battle, and on his way to Mecca, was put to death by an overzealous 
adherent of Ali. The latter, on beholding his head, wept bitterly, 
and cursed his executioner, who, frantic with rage and mortification, 
plunged his sword into his own bosom. After an obstinate and 
sanguinary conflict, the rebels were defeated, and Ayesha, the soul of 
the conspiracy, was captured. The caliph, with his accustomed i 
magnanimity, sent her in honourable state to Medina, where, how- i 
ever, she was restricted from further intermeddling with politics. 
The victor, in gratitude to the inhabitants of Cufa, from whom he 
had received enthusiastic assistance, made that city the seat of his 
government (A. D. 655). ; 

The authority of Ali was thus completely established in all his 
provinces, except that of Syria, where Moawyah openly laid claim j 
to the caliphat, and was supported by Amru, who hoped by this 
alliance to regain his government of Egypt. Having vainly attempted 
conciliation, the caliph, with ninety thousand men, marched toward 
the refractoiy province. The allies, with nearly that number, 
encountered him on the plain of Seff Seffein, on the banks of the 
Euphrates. For several months, actuated by a desire to spare the 
effusion of blood, Ali studiously avoided an engagement ; yet so 
desperate was the skirmishing, that seventy thousand are said to 
have fallen; among them a great part of the few remaining com- 
panions of the prophet. On one occasion, the caliph, with twelve 
thousand horse, made a furious charge against the enemy, and broke 



THE MAHOMETANS. 327 

their ranks ; but his generous heart revolting from the slaughter of 
his countrymen, he sought out Moawyah, and entreated him to stake 
their rival pretensions on the result of a single combat. The rebel- 
lious emir, however, shrank from a contest with this renowned 
champion — "The Lion of God;" and the Syrian army, when on the 
point of defeat, disarmed the courage of their adversaries by placing 
the Koran on the points of their lances, and crying out for an arbi- 
tration to be decided by its contents. Each claimant of the caliphat 
appointed an umpire, but the shrewdness and trickery of Amru, 
who represented Moawyah, proved too much for the honest inefii- 
ciency of the representative appointed by the caliph; and the 
parties separated with mutual hatred and discontent (A. D. 657). 

The declining power of Ali was next menaced by the Karigites 
or Seceders, a fanatical and formidable sect, which assembled in 
arms to the number of twenty-five thousand. The mildness and 
clemency of the caliph, however, reduced the number to four thou- 
sand, and these, making a desperate attack upon his camp, were cut 
off almost to a man. 

By the treachery of Moawyah, Egypt was speedily embroiled in 
civil war, and by his contrivance Malec, whom Ali had despatched 
as governor to allay the discontent, was poisoned on his way. 
Amru, with a considerable force, hastened to the scene of his for- 
mer exploits, and, uniting with the insurgents, gained possession of 
the country, which he ruled as the viceroy of Moawyah, Mahomet, 
the brother of Ayesha, who had been governor, was put to death 
by the adherents of Othman, in revenge for his share in the mur- 
der of that sovereign. A great part of Arabia was soon conquered 
by the ambitious rival of the rightful caliph. 

The latter, though disheartened at these reverses, was preparing 
to invade Syria with sixty thousand men, when a strange conspiracy 
ended for a time these civil dissensions. Three Karigites, fanatic- 
ally discussing the misfortunes of Islam, agreed to restore unity to 
the great Moslem family, by simultaneously despatching, on a given 
day, the three most prominent aspirants to sovereignty. Their plot 
was partially successful. Moawyah, while officiating in the mosque 
at Damascus, was desperately wounded, but finally recovered. 
Amru was only saved by the mistake of the assassin, who killed 
the iman who at the time chanced to occupy his place. The gener- 
ous Ali, mortally wounded in the mosque at Cufa, ordered that his 
murderer should be mildly treated, and that, if he should die, no 



328 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

torture should be employed in the execution of the criminal. This 
kindly and magnanimous sovereign, the noblest, if not the wisest, 
of the Arabian caliphs, three days afterwards expired, at the age 
of sixty-three, and after a stormy and embarrassed reign of only 
five years (A. D. 660). His memory has ever been held in the 
deepest veneration by the Persian Mahometans. 

His son Hassan, a peaceful, honest, and unenergetic man, was 
forthwith elected in his place, and, stimulated by the zeal of Hosein, 
his brother, and other valiant chiefs, put himself at the head of the 
army, which the late caliph had prepared for the invasion of Syria. 
Feeling himself, however, inadequate to the command of his fiery 
and contentious followers, he soon made overtures to Moawyah, 
offering to resign the caliphat, on condition of receiving a princely 
revenue, and the succession after the death of the latter. These 
terms were acceded to by his rival, who thug, in the forty-first year 
of the Hegira, assumed that sway over the entire Moslem empire 
which he had coveted so long. 



LJ Jbuj wiJb cL uj (ij (JuO iZ\) Jj 



THE SYEIAN C ALIPH AT.— REIGN OF MOAWYAH I. THE 

SIEGE OE CONSTANTINOPLE. WARS IN APRICA. 

THE REIGN OF YEZID. 

Moawyah, the chief of the illustrious house of Ommiah, and 
the founder of a splendid line of oriental sovereigns, assumed full 
dominion over the various Mahometan nations in the forty -first year 
of the Hegira (A. D. 662). The ability and rigour of his rule 
soon stifled all opposition, and his taste for letters and the sciences, 
furthered by influences from his Grecian provinces, began to throw 
some refinement over the rude and successful arms of Islam. The 
new caliph was ably supported by Ziyad, his illegitimate brother, 
whom he conciliated by a public acknowledgment of their relation, 
and who, in various difficult and important posts, strongly upheld 
his interest and the tranquillity of the empire. At the death of the 



THE MAHOMETANS. 329 

latter, his son Obeid'allah, wlio inherited his talents and severity, 
succeeded to his authority. 

Amru had been confirmed in his government of Egypt, to which 
he had a natural claim, both by his conquest of that country and his 
subsequent able administration. He did not long survive the res- 
toration of his power and honours, dying at an advanced age, in the 
forty-third year of the Hegira (A. D. 663). 

The conquest of Constantinople had always been a favourite 
project of the Mahometan sovereigns ; and the prophet himself had 
promised a fall remission of sins to the army which should achieve 
it. The present extent and security of the Moslem empire seemed to 
afford a fitting opportunity for the exploit; and the weakness and 
incapacity of the Emperor Constantine (the grandson of Heraclius) 
menaced no prospect of a formidable resistance. The caliph accord- 
ingly prepared powerful armaments, both by land and sea. The com- 
mand was intrusted to an ancient general, named Sophian, who was 
accompanied by a few of the yet surviving veterans who had fought 
in the early wars of the prophet. The emperor's son Yezid, and 
Hosein, the noble son of Ali, also took a prominent part in the 
expedition. 

Few particulars of this long and important contest have reached 
us. The Moslem forces, disembarking near Constantinople, besieged 
in vain for some time the strong and well-defended capital of the 
empire. At the approach of winter, they retired to an island about 
eighty miles distant, which they made their head-quarters, and 
whence, for six years, they made desperate and futile attempts to 
gain the disputed city. After losing great numbers, they were com- 
pelled to return, having ravaged the coasts of either continent. 
The Christians, taking courage from their successful defence, became 
assailants in their turn, and made demonstrations so formidable that 
Moawyah, aged and desirous of rest, was fain to purchase, by a 
considerable tribute, a truce for thirty years. 

During this contest, Northern Africa, so suddenly conquered, 
was retained with difficulty, and seemed gradually slipping from the 
hands of the Faithful. To restore their ascendancy, the caliph des- 
patched from Damascus the valiant and enthusiastic Acbah, who, 
with ten thousand horse, sped hastily thither, his forces augmenting 
on the way. He retook Cyreue, and, pressing still westward, 
founded the city of Caerwan, about a hundred miles from Carthage. 
By the intrigues of Muhegir, governor of Egypt, the victorious 



330 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

general was recalled; but bis merits being made known to the 
caliph, was reappointed to the command, and during the succeeding 
caliphat, performed many exploits. He put Muhegir, who, through 
jealousy, was destroying the new colonies, into irons, and, pursuing 
his victorious career through Mauritania, was only stopped by the 
waters of the Atlantic. Spurring his horse into the waves, he 
declared that, unless thus prohibited, he would have carried the 
sword of Islam farther yet. He was subsequently surrounded, with 
a small army, by an immense host of Greeks and Moors, who, though 
often at war with each other, were now united against the common 
enemy. He released Muhegir from his chains that he might strike 
a last blow in behalf of Islam, and gain the abodes of Paradise. The 
whole band, fighting most desperately, were cut off almost to a man. 

Moawyah, conscious of his approaching end, had named his son 
Yezid as his successor — a step upon which none of the caliphs had 
hitherto ventured. Such, however, was his entire control over the 
Moslems, that fealty was sworn to his heir without opposition; and 
the house of the Ommiades thus became the first hereditary 
Mahometan dynasty. He died A. D. 679, at the age of seventy 
years, after a generally successful reign of nearly twenty. Though 
his accession to the throne was stained by violence, craft, and cruelty, 
his reign seems for the most part to have been marked by justice, 
clemency, and generosity, and his personal influence to have been 
equal to that of any of his predecessors. The luxuries of Syria and 
other conquered nations were, in his reign, introduced into the 
hitherto simple and primitive court of the caliphs; and his capital, 
Damascus, presented a strong contrast to the ascetic and religious 
state which had been maintained at Medina. 

Yezid, who, at the age of thirty-four, came to the throne, was of 
a selfish and sensual nature ; and his reputation was stained by the 
imputation of the murder of Hassan, who, according to agreement, 
was to have succeeded Moawyah in the caliphat. His authority 
was, however, generally acknowledged, and he sent immediate 
orders to Medina to exact allegiance from Hosein, and from Abdal- 
lah, the son of Zobeir. Ambitious and dissatisfied, they fled to 
Mecca, and declared openly against the caliph. Hosein, as the son 
of Ali, and the grandson of the prophet, was regarded by many as 
the rightful heir to the sovereignty ; and on receiving an invitation 
from the people of Cufa to repair to their city, he set out from 
Mecca with his family and a slender escort. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 33;!^ 

His expectations, however, were deceived. Obeid'allaTi, tlie fierce 
and saguinary son of Ziyad, had suppressed the premature revolt 
which had been commenced in his favour, and had sent the head of 
Muslim, his most faithful and active adherent, to the Caliph Yezid. 
Hosein himself, being surrounded by a large force near the Eu- 
phrates, was refused any alternative except the oath of fealty or 
immediate death. He preferred the latter, and all his little train, 
in spite of his remonstrances, joined in the resolution. Selling 
their lives as dearly as possible, this heroic band was cut to pieces, 
after slaying eighty-eight of the enemy, The gory head of Hosein 
was brought before Obeid'allah, who brutally smote it on the mouth 
with his staff — an outrage which caused an aged Arab to exclaim 
pathetically that he had seen those lips pressed by the prophet of 
God. The caliph, however, on receiving the ghastly trophy, shed 
tears, and cursed the unsparing emir who had sent it. He treated 
the unfortunate children of his rival with kindness and magnanimity. 

From the religious feeling and the animosity excited by these 
events, sprang up the celebrated and rival Persian sects of the Shy- 
ites and the Sonnites ; the former of whom hold the house of Ali 
in the deepest veneration, and canonize Hosein as a martyr and a 
saint. The day on which he perished is held as a solemn religious 
festival, sacred to his memory throughout the Eastern world. "The 
history of Islam," says Mr. Macaulay, "contains nothing more touch- 
ing than that mournful legend : how the chief of the Fatimites, when 
all his brave followers had perished around him, drank his latest 
draught of water and uttered his latest prayer — how the assassins 
carried his head in triumph — how the tyrant smote the lifeless 
lips with his staff — and how a few old men recollected with tears 
that they had seen those lips pressed to the lips of the prophet of 
God. After the lapse of nearly twelve centuries, the recurrence of 
this solemn season excites the fiercest and saddest emotions in the 
bosoms of the devout Moslems of India. They work themselves 
up to such agonies of rage and lamentation, that some, it is said, 
have given up the ghost from the mere effect of mental excitement. 
They believe that whoever during this festival falls in arms against 
the infidels, atones by his death for all the sins of his life, and passes 
at once to the gardens of the Houris." 

Abdallah, the son of Zobeir, already hostile to the house of 
Ommiah, now commenced to inflame the resentment of the Arabs 
by elot[uent denunciations of the late murder. At a public meeting 



332 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

in tlie mosque at Medina, the calipli's authority was universally dis 
owned, and the adherents of his house were besieged in the palace 
of the governor. Meslem, an aged but ferocious general, was des- 
patched, with seventeen thousand men, to their relief. He took the 
city by storm, after a brave defence, and delivered it up to massacre 
and pillage for three days (A. D. 682). Proceeding to inflict the 
same vengeance on Mecca, he died on the way, and Hozein, the 
commander who succeeded him, laid siege to the rebellious city. 
For forty days it was stoutly defended by Abdallah and his adhe- 
rents, and at the end of that time was saved from further violence 
by tidings of the death of Yezid. He died A. D. 683, after a reign 
of three years and a half. 



THE RIVAL CALIPHS OF DAMASCUS AND MECCA. 

TRIUMPH OF ABD'ALMALEC. 

The son of Yezid, Moawyah II., a youth of twenty-one, resigned 
the authority, after holding it only six months, and soon after died. 
The principal men of Damascus appointed in his place Merwan, an 
artful man, who had been secretary to the Caliph Othman; stipu- 
lating, however, that he should be succeeded by Khaled, the son of 
Yezid. His sovereignty, for the present, extended only over a part 
of the great Mahometan empire — Arabia, Egypt, and several of the 
Persian provinces adhering to the rival caliph, Abdallah, who held 
his court at Mecca. Obeid'allah, who had prematurely attempted 
the assumption of independent power, was expelled from Bassora, 
and, flying ignominiously to Damascus, gave in his adhesion to Mer- 
wan. Dehac, the governor of Cufa, who with a large force declared 
for Abdallah, was defeated in a murderous engagement, and his 
head was presented to the Syrian caliph. Amru Ibn Saad, the 
active general of the latter, recovered Egjrpt, and signally defeated 
Musab, the brother of Abdallah, who was advancing with an army 
to its assistance. Abd'alaziz, the son of the caliph, was appointed 
governor of the reconquered province. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 333 

By a singular species of contrition, the people of Cufa, to wliose 
desertion and insincerity Hosein owed his death, were suddenly 
smitten by the united passions of grief and revenge. Four thou- 
sand of them, assuming the title of "Penitents," fanatically set forth, 
resolved to avenge his death, and reinstate the descendants of Ali in 
the sovereignty ; but were encountered in Syria by the fierce Obeid'- 
ailah, with an army of twenty thousand horse, and were cut to pieces. 

After the disastrous fate of the gallant Acbah, the Mahometan 
arms had lost ground in Northern Africa ; and the native inhabit- 
ants, powerfully reinforced from Constantinople, had taken the city 
of Caerwan, and compelled the invaders to retreat to the eastward. 
Abd'almalec, the son of the caliph, was sent with an army to 
retrieve these misfortunes ; and, joining his forces to those of the 
Mahometan commander, defeated the enemy, and retook the city. 
After a brilliant campaign, which reassured the ascendancy of the 
Moslems, he returned to Damascus; and, in violation of the pledge 
of Merwan, was appointed his successor in place of Khaled, The 
aged caliph^ however, presently met his end, after a reign of less 
than a year, being murdered, it is said, by the mother of Khaled, 
whom he had married. 

Abd'almalec, at the age of forty, came to the throne with a high 
reputation for valour, wisdom, and learning — qualities which, how- 
ever, were soon obscured by a sordid covetousness. To attract the 
true Moslems from Mecca, the seat of his rival Abdallah, he con- 
secrated Jerusalem as a place of pilgrimage, and enlarged the 
mosque of Omar, on the site of the temple of Solomon, 

A singular and truly Arabian character began at this time to 
play a conspicuous part in the shifting scenes of oriental policy. 
He was the son of Abu Obeidah, and became, from his extraordi- 
nary career, generally known by the title of Al Moktar, or The 
Avenger. He had been a zealous adherent of the house of Ali, 
and while a prisoner had lost an eye from a blow of the ferocious 
Emir Obeid'allah, After fighting in the defence of Mecca, he 
returned to Cufa, and, burning to revenge the death of Hosein, 
became leader of a numerous sect, which still adhered to the house 
of Ali, Supported by this powerful faction, he proceeded to punish 
unrelentingly all who had been concerned in the martyrdom of the 
grandson of the prophet; and after causing a great number of 
executions, found himself completely established in the sovereignty 
of Babylonia. 



334 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Mahomet, the brotlier of Hosein, witli his family, was imprisoned 
in Mecca by the suspicious Abdallah ; but was rescued and carried 
off in triumph by a few hundred hardy and resolute warriors, whom 
Al Moktar sent to his assistance, and who took the caliph by sur- 
prise. Abd'almalec had despatched a powerful army against the 
new pretender, under Obeid'allah, his ancient enemy and oppressor. 
They were encountered at some distance from Cufa by Ibrahim, 
the -valiant general of Al Moktar, and were routed with great 
slaughter. The head of their sanguinary leader was brought before 
the Avenger, who smote it with a savage satisfaction, as the dead 
man had smitten the face of his victim Hosein, and that of his 
former prisoner. 

The usurper did not long enjoy his triumph. He was attacked by 
Musab, the brother of Abdallah, was routed, and compelled to retreat 
into the citadel of Cufa. Here he was slain, after a valiant defence, 
and his garrison, seven thousand in number, were put to the sword by 
the enraged victor. He had well earned his name of the Avenger, 
having put to death, before his fall, nearly fifty thousand of his 
enemies, besides those who perished in battle. 

Musab was now in full possession of the conquered province; and 
Abd'almalec resolved, in person, to wrest it from his hands. On 
his march, he learned that his cousin, Amru, to whom he had 
intrusted the government in his absence, was aiming at the sove- 
reignty. He returned rapidlj^, and a bloody combat ensued in the 
streets of Damascus. An apparent reconciliation was effected ; but 
the caliph, getting possession of the person of his rival, struck off 
his head, aud again marched for Babylonia. Musab encountered 
him with his army, not far from Palmyra; but being deserted by a 
part of his forces, was offered his life by the victorious sovereign. 
He. refused the offer, determined to conquer or die; and with his 
valiant son Isa, was slain, fighting bravely to the last. The con- 
quest of Babylonia and Irak was thus fully secured, and the victor 
entered the citadel of Cufa in triumph. 

The head of Musab was brought to him ; and an aged resident in 
the castle could not forbear remarking that in that very fortress he 
had seen the head of Hosein presented to Obeid'allah; that of 
Obeid'allah to Al Moktar ; his in turn to Musab ; and now that of 
Musab to Abd'almalec. The caliph, whose whole nature was 
imbued with superstition, imagined a fresh seqence to this series of 
events; and, lest his own name should figure in a similar recital, 



THE MAHOMETANS. 335 

caused tlie ill-omened edifice to be levelled with the ground. He 
then returned to Damascus, having appointed his youthful brother,' 
Besher, as governor of the province— the real power, however, 
being confided in an able and experienced vizier named Musa. 

By these, and further dissensions in the Moslem empire, the 
strength of the Syrian caliphat was much diminished. The Greeks 
began to make successful incursions; and Abd'almalec, to purchase 
peace of the emperor, was compelled to pay additional tribute. 

Having by this humiliating condition secured the forbearance of 
his Christian neighbours, the Syrian caliph resolved upon a grand 
effort to overthrow Abdallah, his Meccan rival, and once again 
unite the children of Islam under a single Commander of the Faith- 
ful. Al Hejagi, a fierce and able commander, was despatched against 
the Sacred City, where Abdallah, with his few devoted adherents, 
defended themselves, for a long time, with unavailing courage. 
Finding his ranks so thinned by desertion that a further defence 
would be ineffectual, the Arabian caliph, now aged and infirm, 
sallied forth with a few brave men, and, after making great havoc 
among the enemy, fell, covered with wounds (Hegira 73). Arabia, 
after the loss of its sovereign, submitted to the rival power. 

The arms of Al Hejagi were next turned against the emir of 
Khorasan, an officer of the late caliph, to whom the head of Abdal- 
lah had been sent as a warning against contumacious resistance, 
The spirited emir, however, carefully embalmed the sacred object, 
made the caliph's messenger eat the letter he had brought, and sent 
him back with a defiance. He was, however,- overcome by Al Hejagi, 
and finally slain. 

Besher having died, Al Hejagi was appointed as governor of the 
province of Babylonia; and Musa, falling into disgrace, was com- 
pelled to seek the protection of Abd'alaziz, the caliph's brother, and 
governor of Egypt. The new emir, by his severity and military 
skill, soon reduced the refractory cities to subjection ; and suppresed, 
in succession, several formidable rebellions, which had menaced the 
caliphat itself His tyranny, and the terrible frequency of his 
executions, however, caused his memory to be deeply detested in 
all the countries which had owned his sway. 



336 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



\j (Lui lOoj cL Jj cLi Oju l60o (I; Jj Jj o 



REVIVAL OE THE SPIRIT OF CONQrEST. THE REIGN OP WALEB. 

PINAL SUBJUGATION OF NORTHERN AFRICA. 

The Moslem dominions were now, indeed, reunited under a sin- 
gle commander of the Faithful ; but the Mahometans, by their own 
dissensions, had lost that first flush of success which threatened their 
entire ascendancy over the civilized world. That ascendancy was 
now in a great degree to be restored. Abd'almalec, secure upon his 
throne, at once renounced the onerous and humiliating tribute of 
gold, women, and Arabian coursers, which had been for some time 
enforced by the Greek emperors. Taking advantage also of the 
unpopularity of Leontius, the new emperor, he even despatched an 
expedition against the Christians, and acquired some spoil and 
territory. 

Africa, however, was at this time destined to be the scene of 
more famous exploits than the arms of Islam had for some time 
achieved. The Moslems had successively lost many of their acquisi- 
tions in that country; and the fleets and armies of the empire had 
regained various important stations, especially on the sea-coast. In 
the seventy-seventh year of the Hegira (A. D. 698) the caliph, anx- 
ious to recover his lost ground, despatched Hossan, an able general, 
with forty thousand men, into the north of Africa. His first blow 
was aimed at the important city of Carthage, which had been rebuilt 
by the Roman emperors, and which was now strongly garrisoned by 
the imperial forces. After a long siege, he took it by storm ; many 
of the inhabitants were slain, and others escaped by sea. 

The Moslem army, in the midst of its triumph, was, however, 
compelled to retreat to Caerwan, by a large force of imperialists, 
which, reinforced by the Goths from Spain, and commanded by the 
Prefect John, made its appearance before the place. Having in his 
turn received reinforcement, Hossan again marched to the scene of 
action, defeated the prefect, and compelled him, with the remnant 
of his forces, to embark for Constantinople. Carthage was again 
taken and delivered to the flames. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 



837 



Having tlius expelled the forces of the empire from the contested 
shore, the Moslem commander was enabled to turn his arms against 
the hostile natives. These, headed by an heroic and patriotic queen, 
called Cahina, or the Sorceress, united so zealously in opposing 
their invaders, that Hossan, after repeated battles, was compelled to 
retire to the frontiers of Egypt. To prevent his return, Cahina 
caused all the country to be laid waste. The desired effect was not 
produced. The Moslems returned in increased numbers, and the 
heroic queen was defeated and captured. Refusing either to pay 
tribute or embrace Islamism, she was forthwith beheaded in presence 
of the Mahometan general. 

The victor, however, receiving an appointment to the government 
of Barca, incurred the jealous displeasure of Abd'alaziz, who stripped 
him of his offices, and reduced him to ruin — appointing in his place 
Musa, the former vizier of Babylonia, who was destined to perform 
greater achievements in the west than any of his predecessors. This 
celebrated conqueror, when he received the command of the Mos- 
lem forces in Northern Africa, although sixty years of age, was 
filled with ardour and the spirit of enterprise. His courage, gener- 
osity, and affability soon endeared him to the army ; and he resolved 
on the difficult attempt of subduing the warlike tribes who inhabited 
the range of Mount Atlas, and ravaged the plains beneath. He 
defeated them in battle, and his sons Merwan and Abd'alaziz pene- 
trated into their strongholds, and brought back immense booty and 
almost innumerable captives. 

These exploits soon restored him to the favour of the caliph ; and 
his ranks were recruited by volunteers, who came from all quarters 
to fight under so liberal and courteous a leader. His army no longer 
consisted of Mahometans alone. Great numbers of Jews, idolaters, 
and others, allured by the love of plunder and victory, hastened to 
enlist under his banner; and thus reinforced, he was enabled to 
overthrow the powerful Berber tribes of the Zenetes, the Gomeres, 
and the Mazamudas, who had joined in a formidable confederacy 
against the encroaching power. 

The naval exploits of Moawyah I. had opened the way for more 
extended enterprises ; and fleets from Syria and Egypt had already 
engaged their Christian enemies on the seas. By order of the 
caliph, Musa founded and completed an extensive dock-yard and 
arsenal at Tunis, whence his fleets, under the command of his son 
Abdolola, plundered the hostile coasts of Sicily. 
22 



338 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Abd'almalec, however, did not long survive this renewal of the 
Moslem successes. He expired at Damascus at the age of sixty, in 
the eighty-sixth year of the Hegira, leaving a reputation for talent 
and valour, as well as cruelty, superstition, and treachery. His son 
Waled succeeded without opposition to the power and splendour 
which already distinguished the court of Damascus. The great pas- 
sion of the new sovereign was for building, and many of the noblest 
edifices of the Mahometan faith, in various cities of the East, owe 
their erection to him. He constantly employed twelve thousand 
Avorkmen on the grand mosque at Damascus, which, to his deep 
regret, he did not live to see completed. 

While he thus devoted himself to works of art and refinement, 
or enjoyed the luxurious indolence of his seraglio, his lieutenants 
were widely extending his empire in various directions. His brother 
Moslema invaded Asia Minor, gained important successes in the 
province of Cappadocia, and subdued a great part of Pontus, Arme- 
nia, and Galatia. Khatiba, the son of the latter, the emir of 
Khorasan, equally enterprising, invaded Turkistan, defeated a great 
army of Turks and Tartars, and took their capital Bochara. He 
gained a yet more brilliant triumph in the reduction of the great 
city of Samarcand, which he made tributary, and where he erected 
a mosque, and made many converts to the faith of Islam. Mohammed 
Ibn Casem, another commander, gained great successes in Central 
India, and planted his standard on the banks of the Ganges. 

The fleets of Musa, commanded by Abdolola, continued to scour 
the Mediterranean, ravaging the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia, and 
carrying off immense booty and many beautiful captives. Aided 
by Abd'alaziz, another of his valiant sons, the governor subdued the 
kingdoms of Fez, Duquella, Morocco, and Sus, and brought nearly 
all Northern Africa fully xmder the sway of the caliph. His mod- 
erate and paternal government improved and conciliated the nations 
thus brought under subjection. As yet, the strong cities of Ceuta 
and Tangiers, at the Straits of Hercules, defied his arms. These 
important posts were now in the hands of the Gothic inhabitants of 
Spain ; and Musa resolved to complete his conquests by their reduc- 
tion. Tangiers, after an obstinate defence, fell into his hands; but 
Ceuta being ably defended by Count Julian, a distinguished Gothic 
noble, held out successfully. The Moslems, in repeated attempts to 
storm the fortress, were repulsed with great loss, and, after a siege 
of several months, began to despair of effecting their object, when 



THE MAHOMETANS. 339 

a memorable occurrence not only completed their African acliieve- 
ments, but opened to them a new and surprising career of European 
conquest. 



CHAPTER II Y. 

THE CONUTJEST OF SPAIN, AND THE INVASION OP PRANCE. 

EoDERic, the last of the Gothic sovereigns of Spain, was at this 
time upon the throne of that country. He was addicted to pleasure 
and licentiousness ; and it is related by Spanish chroniclers that he 
had committed a disgraceful outrage upon the beautiful Cava, 
daughter of Count Julian, the governor of Spanish Andalusia and 
African Mauritania. Burning to avenge this injury, the haughty 
nobleman sought his Moslem adversary, and, depicting the feebleness 
and Tinpopularity of the Gothic monarch, invited an invasion of his 
country, Musa, fired with fresh ambition, obtained the consent of 
the caliph; and in the spring of the year 709, Tarik, an intrepid 
Saracen chief, was despatched with seven thousand men to com- 
mence the work of conquest. Landing at Mount Calpe, and con- 
ducted by the traitor Julian, the Moslem arms met with signal 
and immediate success. The king, hitherto immersed in luxury at 
his court of Toledo, was alarmed into action, and, with an hundred 
thousand men, took the field. His enemies, only a fifth of that 
number, were, however, emboldened by victory, and by the stern 
exhortation of their leader, who reminded them that no refuge but 
the sea was behind them. After seven days of skirmishing, a 
general engagement took place, on the banks of the river Guadelete, 
in Medina-Sidonia. Eoderic, by the fresh treachery of a powerful 
chief, was signally defeated, and, flying from the field, perished in 
the waters of the Gaudalquiver. 

The victorious general, pursuing his conquest, marched to the 
Bay of Biscay, the Moslems being eagerly assisted by the numerous 
Jews, who gladly took part in throwing off the yoke of the Gothic 
Christians, their ancient persecutors. Musa, emulating these exploits, 
speedily followed with his army, made fresh conquests, and even 
carried his standard beyond the Pyrenees. Tarik, of whose renown 



340 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. 

he was jealous, was deprived of his command, and even insulted by 
a blow. The aged conqueror was meditating a march through all 
Southern Europe, when he was recalled by the caliph to give an 
account of his arrogance and mal-administration. His disgrace 
saved Europe from a formidable and perhaps fatal invasion. 

The conquest of Spain was fully completed in about five years, 
and the native inhabitants were permitted, on payment of a moder- 
ate tribute, to enjoy their laws and religion. Ere long the Saracen 
or Moorish governor again crossed the Pyrenees, seized on the 
French province of Languedoc, and overawed all the country 
between the mouth of the Ehone and that of the Garonne. In the 
year 731, the daring and ambitious Abd'alrahman, who then com- 
manded the Spanish province, made an expedition into France with 
a great army, defeated Eudes. the French commander, and overran 
all Aquitain and Burgundy. The conquest of France, and perhaps 
of all Christian Europe, was averted by the valour and skill of 
Charles Martel, then "mayor of the palace" to the feeble sovereign, 
Thierry II., and in fact the real ruler of France. He assembled a 
great force of French and Germans, and encountered the invaders, in 
the centre of the kingdom, between the cities of Tours and Poictiers. 

After a battle, which, from the number and obstinacy of the com- 
batants, lasted seven days, the Mahometan ranks, overpowered by the 
superior strength and stature of their adversaiies, met with a most 
disastrous defeat, and were compelled to retreat, leaving the bones 
of many thousands of their number upon the field. This battle, per- 
haps the most important in the history of the world, stayed for ever 
the tide of Mahometan invasion, at that time threatening to overflow 
even the imperfect Christianity, and the germ of civilization, which 
then existed in Western Europe. For although undoubtedly the 
Saracens afterwards attained a degree of learning and refinement as 
yet unknown among other people, the peculiar nature of their faith, 
and perhaps of their national character, has hitherto prevented any 
Mahometan nation from making advances which will sustain a com- 
parison with those of the Saxon and Norman races, impelled by the 
genius of Christianity. 

During the domestic dissensions which soon after agitated and 
divided the caliphat, the Saracens lost ground, and in the year 759, 
Pepin the Short, the son of Charles, and the inheritor of his genius 
and authority, succeeded in completely expelling them from their 
acquisitions in the south of France. 



THE MAHOMETANS. g^l 



THE DITISION OF THE CALIPHAT. THE DYNASTIES OF 

SPAIN, AFRICA, AND BAGDAD. FURTHER CONaiJESTS, 

DECLINE OF THE SARACENIC POWER. 

The Ommiades, or Syrian Caliphs, wlio for ninety years had held 
their dominion, founded on the ruin of the house of Ali and the 
descendants of the prophet, were, in the year 750, compelled to 
give place to a new power. Abu Moslem, the governor of Khor- 
asan, a devoted Fatimite, espoused the cause of Ildrahim, a descend- 
ant in the fourth degree of Abbas, the uncle of the prophet — an 
Arabian chief, whose name thenceforth distinguished the Abassides, 
one of the most illustrious of Mahometan dynasties. A bloody 
civil war ensued throughout the Moslem dominions ; but Marvan, 
the reigning caliph, was finally defeated, and lost his life, while con- 
tending for his throne in Egypt. Saffah, the brother of Ildrahim, 
gained possession of the sovereignty, and sought to cement his 
power by the extermination of the entire family of the rival dynasty ; 
a savage expedient, in attempting which, thousands of innocent per- 
sons were remorselessly assassinated. The new sovereign fixed his 
court at Cufa, but his successors transferred it to the magnificent 
city of Bagdad, erected by Almanzor, the second of the dynasty; 
and were thenceforward known by the celebrated title of "the 
Caliphs of Bagdad." 

During the reign of Sblyman, the successor of Waled, Constanti- 
nople, the capital of the Emperor Anastatius, had again sustained 
successfully a siege of thirteen months, during which many thou- 
sands of the fanatical Moslems had fallen under its walls (A. D. 
718). In the reign of Mohadi, the third sovereign of the Abassidan 
line, the war with the empire was renewed, and tribute was once 
more exacted from the defeated Greeks. (During many succeeding 
centuries, the Moslems, from their various provinces, carried on an 
active warfare with the nations of Southern Europe, and gained 
permanent or temporary possession of almost every island in the 
Mediterranean. A body of the Saracens, in the middle of the ninth 
century, cruising from Sicily, even sailed up the Tiber, and laid 



342 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

siege to Rome itself. They defeated the forces of the Emperor 
Lothaire, and the city was only saved by the courageous conduct of 
the Pope, Leo lY.; and by a tempest, which scattered and enfeebled 
the Moslem armament.) 

The new line of caliphs, though destined to enjoy a long and 
memorable sway over extensive dominions, were unable, in the 
universal confusion, to retain their empire entire. The young 
Abd'alrahman, a member of the house of Ommiah, escaping from 
the assassins of Saflfah, had taken refuge in Africa. The Saracen 
or Moorish colonists of Spain had always been deeply attached to 
the fallen dynasty, and now offered, their support and allegiance to 
the exiled adventurer. He landed amid general rejoicing, suc- 
ceeded in gaining the absolute sovereignty of the nation, and 
bequeathed his power to a succession of Ommiad princes. 

Refinement succeeded power, and at a time when nearly all Europe 
was sunk in barbarism, a brilliant and intellectual race of Mahometans 
occupied the fairest regions of the south-western peninsula. Nothing 
in Europe could compare with the splendour and luxury of the 
capital cities of Cordova and Granada. The most magnificent 
mosques and palaces attested the wealth of the sovereigns and their 
zeal for religion ; while the high advancement of learning and the 
sciences, made the court of the caliphs the frequent resort of men 
of intellect and attainments. 

In the eleventh century, the power of the Spanish caliphs, by that 
time tyrannical and luxurious, was overthrown, and the various 
districts, seized upon by powerful nobles, became divided into a 
great number of petty principalities. Thus the nation lost much of 
its power ; and the Gothic nobles, who still in a mountainous district 
maintained their indejDendence, commenced the work of restoring 
their country to the Christian rule. After many centuries of almost 
uninterrupted warfare, the Moors, continually losing ground, were 
reduced to the small but beautiful kingdom of Granada, one of the 
most enchanting regions on earth. From this last refuge, after a 
gallant and protracted defence, they were finally expelled, at the 
close of the fifteenth century, by the forces of Ferdinand and 
Isabella, the sovereigns of Castile and Arragon. By the treaty of 
surrender, toleration and protection were solemnly guarantied to 
all the Moslems who should remain in Spain ; yet the most disgrace- 
ful persecution soon ensued, and great numbers were compelled to 
suffer martyrdom, or to embrace the faith of their conquerors. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 



343 



Finally, in tlie reign of Philip tlie Third, that weak prince was 
induced, by the influence of the clergy, to issue an edict, banishing 
the whole race from Spain, and confiscating the greater part of their 
property. They were transported by the royal fleet to Africa, where 
from want, exposure, and the attack of the Bedouins, an immense 
number of them perished in the desert. The few who offered resist- 
ance to the act of expulsion were, after a brave and patriotic defence 
in the mountains, overpowered and put to death. Thus ended the 
Moorish empire — ^the most enlightened, tolerant, and chivalrous, 
Avhich has ever occupied the Spanish peninsula. 

The loss of Spain to the Abassidan caliphs was, ere long, suc- 
ceeded by that of Egypt and Northern Africa. In the year 812, 
Ali Ildrahim, the viceroy of the latter country, set up an independent 
power in the north-western provinces. The Fatimite dynasty, which, 
about a century afterwards, succeeded to the sovereignty, by degrees 
gained possession of the whole field of Mahometan conquest. Moez, 
the last of this line, subjugated Egypt, and founded the city of Cairo. 
After his death, the country, for five centuries, remained in a dis- 
tracted and turbulent condition; numerous kingdoms acquiring a 
separate existence, among which were those of Morocco, Tunis, and 
Algiers. From these active maritime states, for many centuries, 
swarms of piratical cruisers issued forth, sweeping the seas, making 
descents upon the coasts of Europe, and carrying off great booty and 
innumerable captives. Though most of the Northern African states 
have been claimed as fiefs by the sultan of Turkey, and though they 
have generally admitted his nominal sovereignty, the throne of each 
has been the prey of a succession of adventurers, and its capital a 
scene of repeated treachery and bloodshed. 

Egypt, whose history has already been given, was held by various 
dynasties of powerful Mahometans. The most illustrious sovereign 
of this country was the famous Saladin, whose refinement, chivalry, 
and magnanimity illumine the dark and violent age in which he 
wore the crown. 

The house of the Abassides, after losing all their territories in the 
west, held in their capital of Bagdad a powerful and enlightened 
sway, for nearly two hundred years, over the yet extensive dominions 
which remained faithful to their interests. Their power, however, 
gradually succumbed before the various schisms which at this time 
distracted the Mahometan faith and divided the empire. Eadhi, the 
twentieth of the line, was the last who retained any political 



844 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

importance: "the last," says the Arabian historian Abulfeda, "who 
harangued the people from the ptilpit, who passed the cheerful hours 
of leisure with men of learning and taste ; whose expenses, resources, 
and treasures, whose table or magnificence, had any resemblance to 
those of the ancient caliphs" (A. D. 940). 

For three centuries longer, however, the descendants of the 
prophet's family maintained a precarious semblance of state and 
authority, though usually completely in the power of others. The 
Turkish and Tartarian guards, which these sovereigns had intro- 
duced for their protectors, soon became their masters; and Bagdad 
was, for long periods, the prey of a licentious soldiery, more fierce 
and uncontrollable than the Mamalukes of Egypt or the Janissaries 
of Turkey. The governors of their various provinces were mostly 
enabled, by successful rebellion, to establish separate principalities ; 
and finally, in the year A. D. 1258, the hordes of Tartars, who, under 
Houlagou, the grandson of Zinghis Khan, were then overrunning 
western Asia, laid siege to Bagdad. After a siege of two months 
it was taken by storm, and the Caliph Motassem, the last sovereign of 
the Abassides, was murdered, with peculiar barbarity by the victor. 



u ti fl I i iLi Sa Avi, 



THE TARTAR CONQUESTS AND INVASIONS. 

The splendid and powerful dynasties founded in India by the 
Eastern Mahometans have already been described in the account of 
that country. A new and more terrible power than theirs was 
destined to whelm Asia in fresh calamities. Tartary, the Scythia 
of the ancients, and the "store-house" of innumerable warlike 
hordes, has always been inhabited by a fierce, nomadic, and preda- 
tory race. Gross in their habits, and puerile in their superstitions, 
these tribes have perhaps never been surpassed for personal valour 
and endurance, or for fixed unity and tenacity of purpose. " They 
are more obedient," says an ancient traveller, "unto their lords and 
masters, than any other, either clergy or lay people, in the whole 



THE MAHOMETANS. 



345 



world." Zingliis Khan, tlie most remarkable of tlie conquerors and 
devastators of Asia, was born A. D. 1154, of an imperial family in 
Central Tartary. Disinherited at the age of thirteen, by orphanage, 
he was educated and preferred to honour, by the khan of the Kareits, 
a friend of his father. Expelled in turn from this court, and suffer- 
ing great hardships, he finally acquired an independent power, and 
so aroused the superstitious deference of the natives, that his 
standard, when hoisted, attracted them in countless numbers. His 
jSrst exploit was the conquest of Northern China, from which five 
important provinces were soon dismembered. 

At this time (A. D. 1218) the vast territory extending from India 
to Turkestan and the Persian gulf was ruled in effect by a powerful. 
Moslem prince of the name of Muhammed. With equal folly and 
cruelty he had rejected a fr-iendly intercourse proposed by Zinghis, 
and had murdered his ambassadors. The Tartar sovereign, with an 
immense army, marched to avenge this outrage, and in a great 
battle, north of the Jaxartes, the fate of Western Asia was decided. 
The victorious barbarians at once overran the country, committing 
the most hideous murder and devastation. After having seized 
Persia and maiiy other provinces, the victorious ravager expired 
(A. D. 1227), while urging his sons to complete the conquest of the 
Chinese empire. His eldest son, Oktai, succeeded to the throne, and, 
for a century, during which the Zinghishanidan dynasty pursued its 
career of conquest and devastation, Asia presented a spectacle of 
war and massacre on a scale of unprecedented magnitude. The 
celebrated battles of the west are insignificant, compared with those 
in which hundreds of thousands of the ferocious Mongols engaged 
equal numbers of their less active and almost invariably defeated 
resistants. China, on which further encroachments had been made, 
and in which millions of the native inhabitants had been slaughtered, 
was finally, in the middle of the thirteenth century, completely con- 
quered by Kublai Khan, the fifth successor of Zinghis. 

The victor, in fruitlessly attempting the conquest of Japan, lost 
vast numbers of his people ; but nearly all the circumjacent king- 
doms of Asia fell under his sway. With a thousand ships he set 
sail for fresh conquests, and took possession of Borneo, in the Indian 
Archipelago. Bagdad had already been taken, and the last of the 
caliphs ignominiously put to death. Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, 
and Palestine soon fell under the power of the Mongols. Their 
attack on Egypt was indeed repelled by the skill and bravery of 



346 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the Mamalukes; and the Greek empire, from some unknown cause, 
escaped the fury of their attack. But Turkestan, Russia, and 
Hungary speedily fell before the number and ferocity of the invaders. 
In vain did the Pope remonstrate with the formidable potentate, 
whose armies threatened to overwhelm alike the Mahometan and 
Christian world. The khan himself claimed a spiritual supremacy, 
and would accept no terms but those of unconditional homage and 
submission. The domestic quarrels of the conquerors alone saved 
Europe from further devastation. About the year A. D. 1295, the 
dynasty of Zinghis fell to pieces, and the great Asian empire-acquired 
by his successors became divided into a number of kingdoms, under 
separate and rival chiefs of the Mongols. 

The tempest of Tartar invasion, after having been lulled for 
nearly a century, again commenced with additional fury. Timur, 
or Tamerlane,* a descendant of the relatives of Zinghis, and the most 
fortunate of Eastern conquerors, was born in April, A. D. 1336. 
He inherited the principality of Kesh in Transoxiana, and by his 
courage and patriotism, after a long and bloody contest, had succeeded 
in delivering his country from the tyranny of the Calmucs of 
Cashgar, and in acquiring extensive authority. By general con- 
sent, in the year 1370, he assumed the imperial title, and made the 
beautiful city of Samarcand his capital. He now resolved on fresh 
conquests, and the Mongol natives flocked eagerly round his standard. 
After desperate warfare, he became master of all Tartary, and as 
has been related in the description of India, made a careless and 
flying conquest of that wealthy region. Persia, in turn, was brought, 
by easy conquest, entirely under his sway. 

From this period, the history of the Tartarian sovereigns is prop- 
erly Mahometan. Zinghis was simply a deist, and his followers 
mostly idolaters, though toleration to all religions was extended by 
his successors. But the invaders had now, in a great measure, 
adopted the faith of the nations they had conquered. Timur was a 
zealous Mussulman of the sect of Ali, and had built a splendid 
mosque at Samarcand. His great rival and enemy, Bajazet, the 
sultan of Asiatic Turkey, and the terrible leader of the Ottoman 
forces, was also a devoted Moslem and a dreaded enemy of the 
Christians. A jealousy between these haughty sovereigns was 
readily excited by the protection afforded by each to the princes 
dethroned and exiled by the other. 

* literally, " Timur lenk;" i. e. Timur the lame. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 347 

The contest between them was, however, deferred for two years, 
Timur being engaged in the conquest of Syria, and Bajazet in over- 
awing the Greek emperor at Constantinople. At length, in July, 
A. D. 1402, Timur, by a rapid march, penetrated the Ottoman king- 
dom, and the rivals, with immense forces, encountered on the plains 
around Angora. An overwhelming victory secured to Timur the 
kingdom of Anatolia and the person of his rival. The unfortunate 
Bajazet, during the brief remainder of his life, was exposed to igno- 
minious treatment, and is even said to have been confined in an 
iron cage by his barbarous conqueror. The victor did not long 
survive him. He perished of a fever, A. D. 1405, while marching 
with an immense army of cavalry to effect the reconquest of China. 

This extraordinary man presented a singular mixture of refine- 
ment and barbarity. He was a zealous patron of art and learning, 
and delighted in the society of men of genius and intellect ; yet his 
course was marked by the most ruthless massacre and unsparing 
destruction. Four pyramids, each composed of nearly an hundred 
thousand heads, marked the line of his Persian and Indian 
devastations. 



uciiAiriiljii AVi.Ao 

THE TURKS. THE SELJUKIAN DYNASTY, 

The Turks or Turkomans, a warlike race dwelling north-east of 
the Caspian Sea, had often been embroiled with the powerful sover- 
eignties, which, one by one, held their sway over Southern Asia. 
They had already made considerable encroachment, when, in the 
early part of the eleventh century, Seljuk, the chief of&cer of their 
sovereign, fled in disgrace with his family and adherents, into the 
territories adjacent to Samarcand; and, embracing the Moslem reli- 
gion, founded a fresh and formidable dynasty. The powerful 
Mahmoud of Ghizni, jealous of his increasing authority, had impris- 
oned his son Israel. This injury w^as avenged, in the reign of 
Musaood, son of Mahmoud, by an overwhelming invasion, headed by 
Togrul Beg, the grandson of Seljuk. The hostile armies met on 
the field of Zendecan, A. D. 1038. Masaood, after displaying the 



348 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

utmost heroism, was defeated, and soon after perished. Persia fell 
into the hands of the victor, whO; with a mixture of policy and 
magnanimity, restored the caliph of Bagdad as his spiritual lord, 
and in return was invested with the control, as viceroy, of the whole 
world of Islamism (A. D. 1055). The alliance was cemented by a 
marriage of Togrul's sister with the caliph, and of the caliph's 
daughter with the victor. 

Alp Arslan (the Great Lion) succeeded his uncle Togrul on the 
throne of the conquered dominions, now extending from the Tigris 
to the Jihon (A. D. 1063). He made war upon the Greek empire, 
and gained possession, by conquest, of the important kingdom of 
Armenia. The Emperor Diogenes, by his valour and militar}^ skill, 
recovered some of his losses; but finally, in a great battle, was 
defeated and captured, by the Turkish sovereign (A. D. 1071). 
The victor behaved with the highest magnanimity, and when his 
captive, smarting under defeat, declared the fate which would have 
awaited him, if defeated. Alp smiled, and simply remarked that the 
sentiment was not that of a Christian. The emperor was set at 
liberty on reasonable conditions, which, however, he was not enabled 
to fulfil, being deposed by his rebellious subjects. 

The power and prosperity of the sultan continued to increase. 
The fairest portion of Asia was under his dominion, twelve hun- 
dred princes or chiefs waited his movements, and two hundred 
thousand troops followed him to battle. While engaged in the sub- 
jugation of Turkestan, the original seat of his family, he was mortally 
wounded by a prisoner of rank, whom, contrary to his usual clem- 
ency, he had ordered to a cruel execution (A. D. 1072). He was 
distinguished, like many other oriental conquerors, by a love of 
science and learning. 

His son, Malek Shah, was immediately placed on the throne, and 
was saluted as "Commander of the Faithful"' — a title now applied, 
for the first time, to any except the caliphs, who had been the pon- 
tiffs as well as the temporal lords of Islam. This sovereign, destined 
to carry the power and glory of his house to the highest point, 
secured his accession with some difficulty. In a most sanguinary 
battle, he defeated and captured his uncle Kadered, who had laid 
claim to the sovereignty, and who soon shared the usual fate of 
political captives in the East. His successes thenceforward were 
numerous and brilliant in the extreme, and by conquest and policy 
he gained vast accessions of dominion. 



THE MAHOMETANS. 349 

" Persia was his, the emirs of Syria paid their submission of tribute and respect, 
and the appearance of the governor of Transoxiana, as a prisoner, at Ispahan, the 
capital of the Seljuk provinces, and the sultan's name on the coins of Cashgar, showed 
the extent of the power of Malek Shah in Tartary. Daily prayers were offered for 
his health in Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Bagdad, Rhei, Ispahan, Samarcand, Bokhara, 
and Cashgar. * * * In twelve journies, he encompassed twelve times the whole 
of his vast territories, dispensed the benefits of justice, and showed himself the 
father of his people. The pious Mussulman, in his pilgrimage to Mecca, blessed the 
sultan's name for the places for relief and refreshment which cheered the Arabian 
desert; and the afflictions of human nature were soothed and mitigated by the hos- 
pitals and asylums which he built. Under his patronage, the astronomers of the 
East engaged in the- reformation of the calendar. * * * A new era was now 
introduced into Muhammedan chronology, and the GelalcEan style is scarcely inferior 
in accuracy to the Gregorian calendar. Since the brilliant days of the Caliphat of 
Bagdad, letters had not been encouraged by a more enlightened patron than Malek, 
and a hundred poets sounded his praises in the halls of Ispahan. Mosques and col- 
leges displayed his love for religion and literature, and his useful magnificence was 
seen in his spacious high roads and bridges, and in the number of his artificial canals 
and irrigations."* 

Mucli of the credit due to this magnificence, hberalitj, and policy, 
belongs justly to his vizier, the celebrated Nedham, a man of extra- 
ordinary fidelity and shrewdness. On one occasion, when the sultan 
in a skirmish had fallen into the hands of the Greek emperor, with 
whom he was at war, the admirable management of his minister 
restored his liberty, and kept his authority unharmed. Notwith- 
standing these high services, the vizier, by a domestic intrigue, was 
deprived of his power, and was compelled to return to his master 
the turban and inkstand, the tokens of his rank. He complied, 
adding, however, the haughty message, that the prosperity of the 
empire was surrendered with these honoured insignia; and soon 
after, in the ninety-fourth year of his age, perished by the hand of 
an assassin despatched by his jealous successor in office. The 
remainder of his master's reign was short and inglorious. He fell a 
victim to his passion for the chase (A. D. 1092). 

The great empire which had been so rapidly formed, fell almost 
as rapidly in pieces ; and the successors of Malek, after a long suc- 
cession of civil wars, formed four contemporary dynasties, consisting 
of Persia, of the province of Kerman, of Syria, and of Anatolia or 
Asia Minor. The latter kingdom, wrested from the emperors, had 
been governed by Sulyman, a prince of the family of Malek, who 
fixed his capital at Nice, once famous in the history of Christian 

* Mills' "History of Muhammedanism." 



350 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

theology. Another power was yet to arise amid the fragments of 
these kingdoms, and to maintain in different regions, and with varied 
success, a struggle, which has lasted even to the present day. 



LiiAirijiii oL i i i i 



THE TURKS, THE DYNASTY OF OTHMAN. THE OTTOMAN, OR 

PRESENT TURKISH POWER. 

A RACE of Turks, dwelling originally on the north of the Cas- 
pian, descended, in the middle of the twelfth century, into the 
province of Khorasan, and finally became the subjects and soldiers 
of the sultans of that province. Dispersed and routed by Zinghis, 
they subsequently rallied under the brave Gelaleddin, the son of the 
dethroned Muhammed ; and after the final defeat of that chivalrous 
prince, by Oktai, were again disbanded and dispersed. They entered 
the service of various chiefs, and in the commencement of the 
fourteenth century a portion of them, with Solyman Schah, passed into 
Asia Minor. Under his son Ortogrul, they served the Seljukian sul- 
tans of Iconium, and afterwards became united and mingled with that 
people, among whom they dwelt. At the death of Ortogrul, in 1289, 
his power devolved upon his son Othman, whose name has ever 
since distinguished the most powerful of the remaining Mahometan 
dynasties. 

This celebrated chieftain, the founder of the present Turkish 
power, from a predatory and comparatively humble career, emerged 
as a formidable invader and conqueror. Crossing the mountains, he 
entered Bithynia, then a province of the empire ; and during a con- 
test which lasted twenty-seven years, gained important acquisitions ; 
among them the celebrated cities of Nice, Nicomedia, and Prusa; 
the latter of which became, for a time, the Ottoman capital. He 
died in 1326, and was succeeded by his son Orchan. 

The latter completed the subjugation of the province, and his 
marriage with the daughter of the Greek emperor evinces the 
extent of his influence and the terror of his arms. His son, the 



THE MAHOMETANS. ^^^ 

celebrated Amurath, who came to tlie throne in 1360, subdued nearly 
all Thrace, surrounded the imperial capital by his conquests, and 
made Adrianople the seat of his European government. He 
refrained from the easy conquest of Constantinople, satisfied with 
the frequent attendance at his court and camp of the Emperor John 
Palasologus and his four sons. 

He turned his arms, however, against the fierce and warlike 
Slavonic nations dwelling between the Danube and the Adriatic; 
and in a series of successful campaigns reduced their insolence, and 
strengthened his own forces by great numbers of recruits selected 
from the strongest and most beautiful of the captive youth. This 
formidable corps, entitled the Janissaries, ("Yengi Cheri," or new 
soldiers,) for centuries after struck terror into the inhabitants of 
Christian Europe, and finally, at times, overawed their own masters, 
the sultans. At the battle of Cassova, the independence of the 
refractory tribes was finally crushed ; But Amurath, while walking 
over the field of battle, was mortally wounded by a Servian warrior, 
who started from a heap of bodies, and suddenly stabbed him in a 
mortal part (A. D. 1389). 

His son and successor, the famous Bajazet, during a reign of 
fourteen years, extended his conquests still more widely. After a 
career of successful invasion against both his Christian and Mahom- 
etan neighbours, he took the field with a large arni}^, and marched 
toward Central Europe. Sigismond, with the Hungarian army, 
reinforced by great numbers firom France and Grermany, encountered 
the infidel invader on the banks of the Danube. The Christians 
were completely defeated, and the greater part of them were slain 
or driven into the river. The victor, in the pride of his heart, now 
threatened the conquest of all Ital}^ and Grermany, and boasted that 
he would feed his horse with a bushel of oats upon the altar of St. 
Peter's itself A severe attack of the gout deferred the execution 
of this infidel design ; and the grand conflict with Timur the Tartar, 
in which he lost his kingdom and his liberty on the plains of Angora, 
averted the storm so dreaded by all Catholic Europe. 

After his death in captivity, (A. D. 1403,) his empire was dis- 
tracted by dissensions among his children until the year 1413, when 
Mahomet, the youngest, restored the unity of the empire ; and at 
his death in 1421, bequeathed it to his son Amurath II. Mahomet 
II., the son and. successor of the latter, a prince of great ambition 
and military genius, completed the destruction of the Eastern empire, 



352 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

long since tottering to its fall. In 1453, lie besieged and took Con- 
stantinople, where the valiant and patriotic emperor, the last of the 
Constantines, died fighting sword in hand, while vainly withstand- 
ing the assault of the Moslems. - This beautiful and classic spot has 
ever since been the capital of the Turkish power, Prusa and Adri- 
anople sinking into provincial towns. Yet at no time have the 
intruders felt secure of a continued footing in Europe ; and it has 
always been common for many of them to enjoin the sepulture of 
their bodies on the opposite side of the Bosphorus, believing that 
their descendants will yet be eompelled to retreat into Asia. 

Under the successors of Mahomet, the Turkish power and ter- 
ritory continued to increase. Up to the time of Solyman the 
Magnificent (A. D. 1566), an active and valiant race of princes held 
the throne, and extended its dominions. Syria, Egypt, and all 
Greece, both insular and continental, were successively brought 
under their sway. Under Mahomet IV., the Janissaries, the most 
formidable body in their armies, were increased to the number of 
forty thousand. In the long and desolating wars, which for many 
years the sultans of Turkey waged against ,the European powers, 
their superior discipline and enthusiasm enabled them to cope 
against formidable odds, and to maintain possession of most of their 
conquests. The Mediterranean was for centuries the scene of fierce 
and obstinate contention between the Mussulmans and the maritime 
states of Southern Europe; and the scale of victory was almost 
equally balanced, each party, in turn, obtaining the ascendant. At 
the great naval battle fought in the Gulf of Lepanto, 1571, the Mos- 
lems sustained an overwhelming defeat from the allied Christians, 
under the command of the celebrated Don John of Austria. So 
important to the salvation of Christendom was this victory considered, 
that, on hearing of it, the Pope, in the joy of his heart, exclaimed, 
with a species of profane piety, "There was a man sent from God, 
and his name was John!" 

Hungary and Austria were the scene of long and destructive 
wars, in which, however, the invading Moslems were finally com- 
pelled to retreat. The decline of their power, indeed, commenced 
soon after the death of Solyman, and owing to a succession of weak 
and inactive sovereigns, and to the increase and jealousy of the 
gigantic power of Eussia, their influence and territories gradually 
diminished. Under the reign of Catharine II., their forces were 
again and again defeated, and their frontier pushed farther and 



THE MAHOMETANS. 353 

farther backwards, while her haughty inscription on the southern 
highway* indicated her ambition, and foreshadowed the policy of 
her successors. 

That the Turkish-European empire has not been, ere the present 
time, crushed and absorbed by its ambitious rival, is due only to 
the jealousy of the other great European powers, which, for their 
own security, have in general protected the rights of the sultan, and 
insisted on preserving the integrity of his dominions. A refusal to 
sanction the Russian system of aggrandizement, was one of the 
leading causes which severed the alhance of Napoleon and Alexan- 
der, and embroiled Europe in the most destructive war which it 
has ever experienced. 

Undoubtedly, the dismemberment of the Greek provinces is the 
most disastrous event which Turkey has experienced in modern 
times. The revolution which commenced in 1821, and which, eight 
years afterwards, resulted in the independence of Greece, is perhaps 
the most striking instance of a revival of national spirit, after cen- 
turies of degradation, which modern times have witnessed. Few 
struggles for liberty have been more arduous and patriotic than that 
of the brave inhabitants of this classic land. The exploits of their 
most famoas ancestors were emulated by the devotion of Botzaris, 
Miaulis, and other distinguished chiefs in the late contest for freedom. 
The glorious defence of Missilonghi, and the "new Thermopylae" 
which their oppressors found in the narrow defiles of the Pelopon- 
nesus, proved sufficiently that much of the old heroic spirit yet 
existed in the bosoms of the Greeks. 

This long and disproportioned struggle would, however, probably, 
in the end, have proved unavailing, but for the intervention of the 
European powers, whose protection, for once, was extended over the 
cause of a patriotic and suffering people. On the 20th of October, 
1827, the combined English, French, and Russian squadrons, under 
the command of Admiral Codrington, entered the Bay of Navarino, 
where the Turkish fleet, strongly reinforced from that of Egypt, lay 
at anchor. The allied armament had received strict orders not to 
engage in hostilities unless absolutely compelled ; but the rashness 
of a Turkish commander, who fired upon the advancing squadron, 
precipitated a general engagement. In this second Lepanto, the 
Mahometan fleet was almost entirely destroyed, and great numbers 
perished in their vessels or in the waves. A detachment of the 
* " This is the road to Byzantium." 

23 



354 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Frencli army was also landed, and the Turkish forces were com- 
pelled to retire. The Sublime Porte perceived the necessity of 
submission, and a new Grecian kingdom, comprising nearly all the 
celebrated classic states, was soon after erected, under the protection 
of the allied powers. 

Time, of late, seems doing its appropriate work among the Turk- 
ish Moslems, more rapidly than at any former period. Mahmoud, 
the late sultan, though exceedingly desirous of effecting reform, was 
impeded by a thousand prejudices and obstacles. In carrying out 
his measures, he was compelled to destroy, at one terrible massacre, 
in the streets of Constantinople, the greater part of his Janissaries, 
whose mutinous spirit had endangered his very throne. This 
renowned body, which had degenerated into a lawless and licentious 
soldiery, like the Praetorian bands of Eome and the Mamalukes of 
Egypt, was thus, perhaps of necessity, suddenly and fatally brought 
to an end. 

Abdul Meshid, the present sultan, was born in April, 1823, and 
on the death of his father Mahmoud, in 1839, succeeded to the 
throne. He is a young man of generous feelings, and though, like 
most oriental princes, somewhat addicted to sensuality, is believed 
to be deeply devoted to the welfare of his people. Eeform and the 
diffusion of civilization have always been his favourite objects; and 
the generous protection which he has extended to Kossuth and other 
illustrious Hungarian exiles, evinces a high spirit of independence 
and magnanimity. 



SPAIN. 



u iLj) il i i Ji iri i 



ANCIENT HISTORY OF SPAIN THE C AETH AGENI ANS, 

ROMANS, AND GOTHS. THE SARACEN CONQUEST. 

At a very early period, tlie mineral and agricultural wealth of 
the Spanish peninsula appears to have attracted the Phoenicians, 
the most commercial and enterprising people of antiquity. The 
city of Cadiz, it is supposed, was founded by them about one thou- 
sand years before the Christian era; and with their colonists, the 
Carthagenians, they became in time possessed of many settlements 
on the sea coast. The latter nation, having thus secured a footing, 
made strenuous efforts to effect the entire conquest of the country. 
The resistance of the natives was fierce and prolonged; but, though 
in alliance with the Komans, they were, for the most part, subdued, 
and brought under the yoke of their invaders. The successes of 
Asdrubal and Hamilcar were carried yet farther by the famous 
Hannibal, the hereditary and implacable foe of the Eoman people. 
A triumphal arch, erected by the latter to commemorate his 
victories, is still to be seen at Martorel ; being one of the few monu- 
ments which still exist of that extraordinary people. 

The siege and capture of the city of Saguntum, their faithful 
ally, aroused the Eomans to a more vigorous opposition. Large 
armies, headed by their ablest leaders, were despatched against the 
invaders, who had gained possession of all the southern portion of 
the peninsula. The contest was long and obstinate; but Scipio 
Africanus, the most renowned and able general of his day, finally 
succeeded in expelling the Carthagenians from the disputed terri- 
tory (B. C. 210). 

To convert the whole country into a Eoman province was, as 



356 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

usual, the policy of the victors. The natives courageously withstood 
this oppressive project, and their resistance, protracted in various 
districts for nearly two hundred years, evinced the same stubborn 
and unyielding patriotism which has distinguished them in similar 
contests at a later day. During the civil wars, which for so many 
years distracted the commonwealth, Spain was the theatre of fierce 
contention, and frequently played an important part in the grand 
contest for empire, which finally resulted in the complete ascendancy 
of Caesar. Under Augustus, it was fully pacified and subdued ; and 
was, for some centuries, one of the most refined and wealthy of the 
Eoman provinces. It was the native country of the emperors Adrian 
and Trajan, of the philosopher Seneca, and the poets Lucan and 
Martial, as well as of many others highly distinguished in Eoman 
history. 

In the early part of the fifth century, despite the resistance of the 
native inhabitants, and the inefficient succours despatched by the 
Emperor Honorius, the barbarous tribes which had already over- 
whelmed France, poured across the Pyrenees, and soon overran the 
country. These invaders (the Alans, Yandals, and Suevi,) were 
soon after followed by a host of Yisigoths, under their king Altauf, 
who established himself in Catalonia, and founded the Gothic mon- 
archy of Spain. His successors speedily subdued or expelled the 
rival invaders, and greatly extended the limits of the new kingdom. 
A nominal sovereignty was still, for the most part, conceded to the 
Eoman emperor. 

The history of these early Grothic reigns aifords, in general, little 
matter of interest. The throne was frequently deluged with blood, 
and the government disturbed by conspiracy and rebellion. Eeli- 
gious persecutions, caused by conflicting opinions among the 
Christian inhabitants, raged with great fury. Euric, in the latter 
part of the fifth century, gained possession of Eastern Spain and 
Southern France, and shook off the allegiance which had hitherto 
been claimed by the emperors. Leovigild, a century later, succeeded 
in extending his control over nearly the whole peninsula. His war- 
like and legislative qualities strengthened and improved his kingdom ; 
but his character was tarnished by cruelty and avarice. The mon- 
archy was at times hereditary, and at others elective, and was the 
subject of such sanguinary contests as usually distinguish a rude and 
unsettled form of government. 

Early in the eighth century, Eoderic, the last of these Grothic 



SPAIN. 



357 



sovereigns came to tlie throne. He had been distinguislied by bis 
ambition and his opposition to the authority of Witiza, his prede- 
cessor; but on his accession, abandoned himself to ease and luxury 
in his capital of Toledo. A licentious outrage which he committed 
on a beautiful attendant of his queen, named La Cava, proved the 
source of his ruin. The injured damsel fled to her father, the 
powerful Count Julian, governor of Andalusia in Spain and of 
Mauritania in Africa. He was at this time making a gallant defence 
against the Saracens, who, under the celebrated Musa, had conquered 
all Northern Africa, except the province under his command. 
Enraged at the injury inflicted on his honour, he made peace with 
the enemy, and, painting in glowing colours the wealthy and unpro- 
tected condition of Spain, invited an invasion of his country. 

Waled, the caliph of Damascus, readily consented to a scheme so 
promising, and Tarik, an active and resolute Saracen chief, was des- 
patched with seven thousand men on a new career of conquest. 
On arriving at the hostile coast, to show his followers the futility 
of a retreat, he burned his galleys, and soon gained great successes. 
In the year 711, being reinforced, he encountered the Gothic king, 
whose force was vastly superior, on a plain near Xeres de la Fron- 
tera, on the banks of the Guadalete. The fiery enthusiasm of the 
Moslems could not be withstood by the Christian host, which vras 
greatly weakened by the treachery of Opas, a powerful chief, the 
bishop of Seville, and brother of the late monarch. The army of 
Eoderic was defeated with prodigious slaughter, and the unfortu- 
nate monarch lost his crown and his life. 

Seville and Cordova were speedily taken, and Musa, emulous of 
these successes, hastened over with his whole army, and pursued a 
fresh career of victory and conquest. A great part of the peninsula 
was speedily subdued; many of the inhabitants took refuge in 
France; great numbers submitted to the payment of tribute; and 
the shattered remains of the Gothic Christians, who still resisted, 
were forced to take refuge among the inaccessible mountains of 
Burgos, Biscay, and Asturias, in the north-west of Spain. 



358 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



uJbXtilJTXdijil, ii 



THE FORMATION OF NEW CHRISTIAN STATES: ASTURIAS, 

NAVARRE, LEON, CASTILE, AND ARRAGON. CON 

TINUED CONTESTS WITH THE MOORS. UNION 

OF LEON AND CASTILE. 



On the disgrace and recall of Musa, the government of Spain 
was committed to his son Abd'alaziz, whose clemency, activity, and 
public spirit did much to repair the inevitable calamities of war. 
Alahor, his successor, emulated these excellent qualities in his 
administration, and resolved to carry the Moslem arms yet farther. 
Crossing the Pyrenees, he reduced a great part of the south of 
France, and returned in triumph. 

The Gothic nobles, though defeated and expelled, still retained 
their courage and their hopes, Don Pelagio, a prince of the royal 
family, was, in 718, again invested with the royal title; and from 
the mountainous province of Liebana, Avhich he held, defied the 
invaders, and defeated with much slaughter the armies which they 
sent against him. He soon gained possession of the Asturias, and 
multitudes of the Christians hastened to j)lace themselves under his 
protection. After holding the government of his little kingdom for 
nineteen years, he died, leaving a high reputation in the annals of 
Spain, as the founder of a new Christian monarchy. 

Don Alphonso, his son-in-law and second successor, (A. D. 742,) 
regained a great part of Galicia from the Moors, and further secured 
his mountainous kingdom by converting the level country at its base 
into a frontier of desert. By his great zeal for building churches, 
he acquired the appellation of the "Catholic" — a name which the 
Spanish sovereigns have ever delighted to assume. He died in 757. 

After the establishment of an independent Moslem sovereignty, 
under Abd'alrahman, the invaders made a fresh attempt to subvert 
the little Christian monarchy, but were defeated with great slaughter 
by Froila, the son of Alphonso. About the same time they received 
a fresh blow in the formation of the independent kingdom of 
Navarre, under Don Garcia Ximenes, a man of great and successful 



SPAIN. 



559 



abilities. These hostilities with the Moslems were occasionally 
interrupted by intervals of peace and alliance; and Mauregato, 
who gained possession of the Gothic crown in 783, fortified his 
power by conciliating the "Commander of the Faithful" at Cor- 
dova, and even by introducing a body of Saracens into his own 
dominions. 

Under Alphonso, styled "El Casto" or the Chaste, who ascended 
the throne in 791, the Spanish court was removed to Oviedo. Three 
years afterwards, a hostile expedition, despatched by Isseem, the 
Moorish sovereign at Cordova, was repulsed with much loss; and 
further successes again inspirited the Christians, Two fresh attempts, 
in the middle of the ninth century, under Abd al'rahman II,, shared a 
similar fate; but eight thousand troops, who were in turn despatched 
from Oviedo against the Moslems, met with fatal defeat and slaughter. 
Alphonso III., who in 866 came to the throne, strengthened his own 
and the Christian cause by a marriage with a princess of Navarre, 
and an alliance with that state against the Moslems ; and was thus 
enabled to pass the Douro, and gain some accessions of territory. The 
kingdom of Leon, from which the Spanish monarchs now took their 
title, was, in 884, still further strengthened by the rise of its renowned 
neighbour, the Christian principality of Castile. 

For a long series of reigns, the contests between the Christians 
and their rivals continued ; the former frequently sallying from their 
fastnesses in the mountains, and carrying off much booty from the 
inhabitants of the lower countries. Great numbers of slaves were 
also taken in these expeditions, and many small acquisitions of terri- 
tory were gradually made. Don Ordogno, who in 914 ascended the 
throne, reduced several of the Moorish towns, and signally defeated 
an army of eighty thousand men, which had been brought from 
Africa to oppose him. In 923 he made a fresh marital alliance with 
Navarre, and another successful campaign against the Moors. Eamiro 
II., in 932, carried his incursions yet farther to the southward; took 
the city of Madrid by assault, insulted the Moorish garrison at Tole- 
do, and returned with prodigious booty and a multitude of captives. 
Aben Ahaya, the Moslem prince of Arragon, was compelled to 
become his feudatory vassal. 

The latter entreated assistance from the sovereign of Cordova, 
who, with an army of an hundred and fifty thousand men, drawn 
principally from Africa, in his turn made a successful irruption into 
the Christian kingdom ; but was finally defeated by Eamiro, with 



360 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

immense loss, on the plains of Simancas. Fresh and profitable 
expeditions of the Christians soon ensued. 

The Normans, who had already made troublesome descents on the 
coast of Galicia, about the year 970 made a formidable invasion of 
the Spanish territory, and marked their course with rapine and mas- 
sacre, until they were attacked and cut to pieces among the mountains 
of Castile. In the reign of Eamiro III., a few years afterward, a civil 
war broke out among the Spaniards themselves, and in a bloody 
though indecisive engagement, more are said to have fallen than in 
any battle with the Saracens. 

This disaster was succeeded, in 982, by a fresh irruption of the 
Moors, who, after gaining possession of the cities of Simancas and 
Zamora, marched into the Spanish kingdom, under Almancor the 
chief vizier of the king of Cordova. The Christians, under Bermiido 
II., despite a gallant resistance, were outnumbered and completely 
routed near the banks of the Ezla. Their sovereign, with all his 
court, retreated to Asturias, carrying the royal treasure and the 
bodies of his august predecessors. Leon, his capital city, was taken, 
and completely demolished by the victor, who, however, after meet- 
ing a vigorous repulse in Asturias, returned to his own country. In 
the following year, nevertheless, he gained signal advantages in 
Galicia and northern Portugal. 

Bermudo, with the assistance of Navarre and Castile, prepared 
for further resistance; and Almancor, powerfully reinforced from 
Africa, encountered the confederates on the plain of Osma. The 
Infidels were utterly defeated, losing, it is said, an hundred thousand 
men, besides their camp and baggage. The Moslem general, in 
despair, put an end to his life by starvation. 

Among the various Christian kingdoms which were now rapidly 
increasing in strength and number, we find an almost uninterrupted 
succession of alliances, inter-marriages, quarrels, and reconciliations. 
Despite, however, these domestic intrigues and hostilities, a continual 
warfare was carried on against the Saracens — sometimes in petty 
predatory excursions, and sometimes, by union of the Christian 
forces, in expeditions on a larger scale. Ferdinand, prince of 
Castile, who had also gained possession of Leon, was enabled, 
about 1140, to reduce many of their important strongholds, and 
even to compel the Moorish princes of Toledo and Saragossa to 
become his tributaries. Leon had been raised from its ruins, and 
on rebuilding the Church of St. John the Baptist, he compelled 



SPAIN. 361 

the Moorish sovereign of Seville to send him the body of St. Isidore 
to be deposited in the sacred edifice. 

Alphonso yi., who in 1074 inherited the united kingdoms of 
Leon, Galicia, and Castile, made further acquisitions of territory, 
both from his Christian and Mahometan neighbours. He gained 
possession of Toledo, after four campaigns ; and, resolved to make 
it his metropolis, took much pains to people it with Christians. In 
Portugal he became possessed of several important places; but in 
defending his tributary, the Moorish prince of Huesca, sustained a 
severe defeat from his encroaching rival, Don Pedro of Arragon. 
He married Zaide, daughter of the king of Seville, a Moslem lady, 
who readily exchanged her religion for a Christian diadem. 

This Infidel alliance proved unpropitious. Having, with his ally 
of Seville, invited Joseph, the powerful sovereign of Barbary, to 
assist them in reducing the numerous Moorish principalities, that 
monarch, preferring to further his own interests, made himself master 
of Seville and other important cities ; conquered the greater part of 
Andalusia ; invested Toledo itself; and compelled the Spanish mon- 
arch to retire to his hereditary dominions. 

The reign of Alphonso is rendered illustrious by the exploits of 
the famous Gid^ Ruy Diaz de Yivar, the favourite hero of all Spanish 
ballads and legendary history. After a most brilliant career in arms, 
and having held the destinies of kingdoms in his hands, he was 
disgraced and banished by the king. His exile was attended by a 
body of faithful friends and followers, by whose aid he waged a par- 
tisan warfare against all his enemies, and became the especial terror 
of the Mahometans. He finally conquered Valencia, and established 
a kind of principality, which his chivalrous renown caused to be 
respected by all the surrounding powers. 

Toward the close of Alphonso's reign, his army experienced a 
terrible defeat from the African monarch, at Uclea, and his son, the 
young Prince Sancho, fell in the engagement. On the death of this 
sovereign, Alphonso, the king of Navarre and Arragon, took violent 
possession of his dominions, and for some time excluded the legiti- 
mate heir, Alphonso VII., who, however, by prudence and courage, 
finally regained possession of his crown. The latter also repelled 
a formidable invasion of Don Alphonso, king of Portugal; and, 
defeating the Moors with prodigious slaughter, drove them to the 
very gates of Cordova. So predominant were his power and author- 
ity, that he received the title of "emperor" from the surrounding 



362 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

states. Strongly reinforced from Arragon and Montpelier, and from 
the Italian cities of Pisa and Genoa, he besieged and took the Moor- 
ish stronghold of Almeria, long a terror to the Christians, and the 
port whence had issued the most formidable piratical expeditions. 
At his death, in 1157, his dominions extended from the mountains 
of Biscay to those of the Sierra Morena ; and his imperial title, 
confirmed by the homage of Navarre and Arragon, commanded the 
respect of all his contemporaries. 

Under the inefl&cient rule of his sons, Sancho and Ferdinand, the 
Saracens speedily recovered many of their possessions which had 
been lost during the late reign; and the knights templars, who had 
hitherto defended the important town of Calatrava, were compelled 
to relinquish their undertaking. The king of Castile then offered it 
to any one who would undertake its defence. Raymond, the Abbot 
of Yitero, and Diego Velasquez, a Cistercian monk, undertook the 
honourable and dangerous office : twenty thousand followers enlisted 
under their banners; and the victorious result of their attempt 
caused the institution of the famous order of religious chivalry, 
celebrated under the name of the city which they kept so bravely. 
The Castilian successes, thus revived, continued to increase, and 
the division of the Christian states alone secured the Saracens from 
farther encroachments. 

At the close of the twelfth century a Castilian army, under the 
archbishop of Toledo, was despatched against the Moors of Andalu- 
sia. This prelate conducted with such severity, that Jacob Aben 
Joseph, the king of Morocco, set on foot a kind of religious crusade 
in behalf of his persecuted fellow-Moslems, and with a great force 
disembarked on the shore of Spain. Without waiting for the assist- 
ance of the neighbouring states, the king of Castile sallied out 
against the enemy, and encountered them in the vicinity of Alarcos. 
His army was cut to pieces, and he retreated to Toledo with the loss 
of twenty thousand men (A. D. 1195). Alarcos, Calatrava, and the 
surrounding country were immediately laid waste, and the clergy, 
wherever found, were put to death without mercy. The domestic 
quarrels of the princes of Leon, Castile, and Arragon, which now 
threatened their total destruction, yielded to the emergency; and, 
by a species of guerilla warfare common in Spain, the Moors were 
finally weakened, and compelled to retire into Andalusia. Peace 
was soon after concluded with the African monarch. 

Mohammed, his successor, in the beginning of the next century, 



SPAIN. 363 

with, a great army again landed in Spain; and as it was evident 
that his object was the complete subjugation of Castile, Alphonso 
IX,, the sovereign of that state, invoked the religious feelings of 
his neighbours for assistance in preserving a Christian principality. 
By the sanction of the Pope, great numbers from France, Germany, 
and Italy hastened to his aid ; a grand rendezvous was held at 
Toledo; and in a decisive battle fought near Tolose, the Christian 
confederates gained a complete and overwhelming victory. The 
quantity of spears, javelins, and arrows found on the field was so 
great, that it is said to have served the victors with fuel for two 
days after the battle. In commemoration of this event, which 
determined the fate of the Spanish Moslems, an annual festival was 
instituted, entitled the "Triumph of the Holy Cross." 

The history of the Christian principalities, for a considerable time, 
presents nothing but domestic intrigues, quarrels, and jealousy. 
Though generally related or connected by marriage, these petty 
sovereigns appear to have omitted no opportunity of despoiling 
each other, when a favourable chance was presented. In 1219 the 
archbishop of Toledo assembled a numerous army for a fresh cam- 
paign against the Infidels, but lost ten thousand of his men in a 
fruitless attempt to take the fortress of Requena. Domestic dissen- 
sions, however, and division into numerous small principalities, 
greatly weakened the Moors, and prepared the way for their final 
overthrow and expulsion. They now sustained losses in Estrama- 
dura, which had hitherto defied its Christian assailants. 

In 1231, the states of Leon and Castile, bj the voluntary resigna- 
tion of the heiresses to the former, were solemnly united under 
Ferdinand, king of Castile — an event which made that state the most 
powerful on the Spanish peninsula, and opened the way for further 
union and consolidation. 

The Spanish Christians had, of late, made considerable advances 
in learning, and the arts and sciences. The celebrated University 
of Salamanca was founded, in 1222, by the king of Leon, and for 
many centuries maintained almost the highest reputation in Europe. 
About the same time Ferdinand of Castile founded the magnificent 
cathedral of Toledo, which is still the admiration of architects and 
travellers. 



364 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



U M, dX i i 2ll dii i i i e 

FROM THE UNION OF LEON AND CASTILE TO THAT OF CASTILE 
AND ARRAGON, UNDER FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 

The dominions of tlie chief Spanish monarcliy had become so 
extensive, that Ferdinand, anxious to secure their protection, offered 
many and successful inducements to those who should settle on his 
boundaries. The Mahometan king of Murcia sought his protection ; 
and even the powerful sovereign of Granada rendered homage and 
valuable tribute, for assurance of peace, and undisturbed possession 
of his domains. The Castilian sovereign also besieged Seville by 
sea and land, took it, after a siege of several months, and repeopled 
it with Christian inhabitants (A. D. 1248). 

His son Alphonso X., surnamed the Wise, made strenuous efforts 
to secure his nomination as emperor of the Grerman empire; but 
while engaged in foreign intrigues, his crown was repeatedly endan- 
gered by domestic conspiracy. On the election of his rival, Eodolph 
of Hapsburg, to the imperial dignity, he hastened to gain the influ- 
ence of the Pope, then the chief arbiter of European affairs ; but ere 
he effected any thing, was recalled by a formidable invasion of the 
Moors and Africans, and the death of his son Ferdinand. His 
second son, Don Sancho, soon afterwards, taking advantage of his 
father's age and unpopularity, procured his own elevation to the 
regency. The dethroned monarch sought and obtained the assist- 
ance of his hereditary foe, the king of Morocco ; but did not long 
survive these domestic injuries. He died A. D. 1284. 

The jealousy of Portugal and Arragon, and continual contentions 
for the crown, involved Castile in fresh war and domestic dissension. 
Some advantages were gained over the Moors, who, however, now 
stoutly maintained their ground, and even regained possession of 
the important fortress of Gribraltar. An invasion of Castile, under 
Henry de Solis, viceroy of Navarre, in 1335, was repulsed with 
great slaughter. Four years afterwards, Abul Hassan, the king of 
Morocco, enraged at the death of his son, who had fallen in fighting 
the Castilians, commenced hostilities, with a powerful fleet and 
army, in the most implacable manner. The Castilian fleet was 



SPAIN. 



865 



destroyed, and the city of Tarifa closely beset. By tlie assistance 
of Portugal and Arragon, however, he was repulsed and signally 
defeated. Algesiras, one of the strongest Moorish stations, was soon 
compelled to surrender. Gibraltar was besieged for twelve months, 
but was saved from surrender by a plague which broke out in the 
Christian camp, and carried off, among others, the king of Castile 
(A. D. 1349). 

Don Pedro, on whom, by this event, at the age of sixteen, the 
crown devolved, was a wretch of such brutal and unrelenting dispo- 
sition as to be distinguished by the title of "The Cruel." His 
severities produced revolt, which was suppressed and punished by 
executions, excessive in number and atrocity. His own brother, 
Don Frederic, and his cousin, Don Juan of Arragon, were inhumanly 
butchered in the royal palace. Others of his relations were barbar- 
ously put to death. Abu Said, king of Granada, with whom he 
was at war, submitted, and was received at court with apparent cor- 
diality ; but, to gain possession of his wealth, was suddenly exposed 
to insult and contumely, and was massacred, with all his attendants. 

The king's brother, Henry of Transtamare, who had escaped 
from his fury, raised a powerful force in France, under the renowned 
Bertrand de Guesclin, and asserted his pretensions to the throne of 
Castile. The tyrant, assisted by Edward the Black Prince, of England, 
was at first successful in this civil warfare ; but being finally defeated 
in battle, was slain by the hand of his enraged brother (A. D. 1369). 
The victor seized the crown, and wore it securely until his death, 
which occurred ten years afterwards. His son Juan, who succeeded 
him, instituted the renowned order of knighthood, styled that of 
"The Holy Ghost." 

Early in the fifteenth century, the Saracens, assisted by fleets from 
the piratical states of Africa, again resumed hostilities; but were 
defeated both by land and sea. A sanguinary war with Arragon, 
and a great victory over the Moors of Granada, securing a complete 
predominance over the latter, shortly afterwards ensued. 

During the reign of Henry IV., who came to the throne in 1453, 
Castile was the scene of a singular piece of rebellious pageantry. The 
marquis of Yillena, with other powerful revolted chiefs, caused a 
platform to be erected on the great plain near Avila, and on this, 
exposed to the view of the surrounding multitude, was placed an 
efiigy of the king, royally attired and seated on a throne, with crown 
and sceptre. His deposition was read aloud, and Villena, with the 



366 TEE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

archbishop of Toledo and other chiefs of the conspiracy, stripped 
the image successively of all its regal habiliments, and finally kicked 
it from the throne, with much abusive language. His brother, the 
youthful Don Alphonso, was proclaimed in his stead. 

This piece of acting, however, proved easier than an actual de- 
thronement; their young protege died suddenly and mysteriously, 
and the king secured his crown by acknowledging his sister, the 
infanta Isabella, as his rightful successor. This princess, so celebrated 
in historj'-, had refused to accept the crown at the expense of her 
brother's interest. Her high prospects of dominion induced many 
of the surrounding princes to seek her hand. Ferdinand, heir to the 
crown of Arragon, was the favoured suitor ; and the death of Henry, 
in 1474, and that of the king of Arragon in 1478, at length united 
these powerful and often hostile kingdoms, as it were, under a single 
sovereignty. 



CHAPTEH I? 



FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. SUBJUGATION OF THE MOORS. 

CHARLES I. (THE EMPEROR CHARLES V.) 

The celebrated sovereigns v/ho now respectively held the thrones 
of Castile and Arragon, though firmly united, rather by policy than 
affection, were not devoid of a certain jealousy of each other's share 
in the administration. Nevertheless, by their wise and harmonious 
regulations, they speedily restored prosperity to the nations so long- 
disturbed and laid waste by civil war. The establishment of that 
horrible tribunal, the Inquisition, caused by the fanaticism of Tor- 
quemada, the queen's confessor, and by the bigoted compliance of 
the sovereigns, soon followed' — an event which, for centuries, 
entailed the severest evils on the country, and produced the worst 
possible effect upon the national character. The first consequence 
of its severities was to drive into exile a great number of Jews and 
Mahometans, who had heretofore enjoyed toleration. 

It soon became evident, indeed, to the unfortunate Moors that the 
day had arrived when the beautiful land, won by the valour of their 



SPAIN. 



367 



ancestors, must be finally abandoned to its original possessors. The 
delighful kingdom of Granada was now the only independent prin- 
cipality remaining; and the sovereigns, incited by bigotry and 
ambition, had fully resolved upon its subjection. The domestic 
quarrels of the Mahometans facilitated their views. The latter lost 
town after town, and were finally cut off from communicating with 
Africa, and beleaguered in the valley of Granada, and soon in the 
city itself 

For eight months, with an army of seventy thousand men, the 
king and queen besieged this unfortunate capital, the last stronghold 
of the Moors ; and many romantic and chivalrous deeds were per- 
formed, both by the Saracens and their besiegers. The city was 
finally compelled to surrender, and its splendid palaces, fountains, 
and gardens, for nearly eight centuries the delight of the Moorish 
sovereigns, fell into the hands of the victors (A. D. 1492). The 
unfortunate king, Abu Abdallah, departed for Africa. With his 
train, he paused upon the summit of a mountain which commanded 
the last view of his kingdom, and wept at the loss of this beautiful 
inheritance. The place is still called "El ultimo suspiro del Moro;" 
"the Moor's last sigh." The subjected Mahometans, though at first 
assured of toleration, were all, as will be seen, eventually driven 
from the country. 

At the same time with these signal successes, a glory far more 
real and permanent was acquired hj Isabella in her patronage of 
Columbus, the greatest name in the annals of navigation or discovery. 
This illustrious man, after half a life-time spent in vainly endeav- 
ouring to secure the means for his noble undertaking, was enabled, 
by the assistance of the queen, to fit out three small vessels, in 
which, on the 3d of August, 1492, he set sail in quest of u.ndiscovered 
worlds. The brilliant and wonderful success which awaited him, 
and the important and interesting part which the Spaniards after- 
wards played in the newly-discovered hemisphere, are matters rather 
of American than of European history. 

Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was about this 
time married to Philip, archduke of Austria, sovereign of the 
Netherlands, and son of the Emperor Maximilian. This imion 
resulted in the birth of a son, destined to inherit vast dominions, 
and to acquire by far the most conspicuous place in European war 
and policy. To this grandson, named Charles, Isabella at her death 
bequeathed her kingdom, leaving the regency with Ferdinand until the 



368 



THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY 



prince should come of age. The latter, assisted by his able adviser, 
the Cardinal Ximenez, continued to hold a firm and succesful 
sway over the greater part of Spain, and even enlarged his territo- 
ries by forcible acquisitions from France. His distinguished general, 
Gonsalvo de Cordova, entitled the "Great Captain," had already 
gained for the Spanish crown the important principality of Naples. 

At the death of Ferdinand, which occurred in 1516, all his 
dominions, with those of Isabella, devolved upon his grandson, who 
was immediately acknowledged, under the title of Charles I. The 
talent and policy of the new monarch soon gained him a fresh 
extension of territory ; and at the death of Maximilian, in spite of 
the opposition of his rival, Francis I., king of France, he was in 
1519 elected emperor of Germany. Leaving Cardinal Adrian as 
regent of Spain, he betook himself to his new dominions ; and was 
soon engaged in that sanguinary war with the French monarch which 
so long ravaged the plains of Italy. 

The battle of Pavia, in 1524, placed at his disposal the person of 
his rival, and Francis only regained his liberty by a promise of the 
cession of much territorj^, and the surrender of his two sons as 
hostages. Secure in his own kingdom, however, he immediately 
violated his agreement, receiving absolution from the Pope; and 
soon effected a league hostile to the emperor, with the Pope, the 
king of England, the Swiss, and several of the Italian states. This 
formidable alliance, which assumed the title of the "Holy League," 
met at first with defeat and disaster. The imperial forces took Milan 
and Eome, and committed the greatest devastations throughout Italy. 
Neither age nor sex was spared, and the ferocious Spaniards, their 
cruelty for once overcoming their superstition, tortured and mur- 
dered the Catholic prelates indiscriminately with the rest. The 
Pope himself, Clement YIL, was imprisoned until he should con- 
sent to pay an enormous ransom. Perceiving the general odium 
which these deeds occasioned in the Catholic world, Charles, in the 
most hypocritical manner, professed his regret, and even ordered 
prayers to be put up in all the churches for the Pope's liberation — a 
pious wish, which a word to his ofiicers in Italy would have gratified. 

French arms, supported by an English subsidy, however, soon 
altered the aspect of Italian affairs ; Clement was released ; and in 
1529 a peace was definitely concluded, on very expensive terms to 
the king of France. The important events in German history which 
succeeded these transactions, hardly belong to the present subject. 





Spanish Costume, 

OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, 



Spanish. Costume, 

Oi^ TUS; SIXTEENTH CfiNTUHY 





Spanish Ccrtume, 

THE FIFTEENTH CEN'i-URT. 



Spanish Costum'=^, 

OF THE S EVENTEF, NI'H CiLNTDRY 



SPAIN. 



369 



A maritime war witk the Infidels was still actively carried on, 
and large sums were voted by the Castilian states for the prosecu- 
tion of this ancient quarrel. Barbarossa, the piratical monarch of 
Algiers and Tunis, had long ravaged the southern shores and the 
islands of the Mediterranean ; and the emperor was finally induced 
to take up arms in person for the suppression of his power. With 
a powerful armament, he set sail for Africa; and after reducing the 
strong fortress of Goletta, defended by six thousand Turks, proceeded 
to Tunis. A vast number of the inhabitants were massacred by his 
enraged soldiery ; and having established Muley Hassan, the deposed 
monarch, as a mere viceroy of his own, the emperor returned. 

The war with France was soon renewed by the pretensions of 
that power to the duchy of Milan. Both parties again took up 
arms, and Charles, with fifty thousand men, marched to invade the 
southern provinces of France, while his generals made a similar 
attempt in Champagne and Picardy. Both expeditions were unsuc- 
cessful, and after experiencing great losses from famine and disease, 
the invaders were compelled to retreat. Elated at this good fortune, 
the French in their turn commenced hostilities in Flanders and 
Italy; and soon shocked the proprieties of Christian Europe by 
entering into an alliance with the Turkish emperor, Solyman the 
Great, the determined foe of their enemy. By the intervention of 
the Pope, peace was again restored. ; 

In the Spanish Cortes^ or assembly, the nobles and prelates had 
opposed the levying of a certain tax. The emperor hereupon dis- 
missed the convention, and from that time ceased to summon either 
of the privileged orders on a similar occasion. While irritated by 
this opposition, he received news of the revolt of Ghent, one of his 
principal Flemish cities. He hastened thither, and, unmollified by 
the immediate submission of the citizens, punished their defection 
with numerous executions and banishments, and with the imposition 
of onerous burdens (A. D. 1540). 

The difficulties in his own kingdom, a new war with France, and 
the alarming successes of the Turks in Hungary, brought the empe- 
ror, hitherto haughty and persecuting, to make some concessions to 
his Protestant subjects in Germany. Having by this act of concilia- 
tion obtained supplies, he made an expedition against Algiers. The 
attempt was unsuccessful, and he was compelled to retire with much 
loss. After further indecisive hostilities with France, peace was once 
more concluded by the mutual restoration of certain conquests. 
24 



370 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. 

Concluding a disadvantageous peace with, tlie Turks, he entered 
into a solemn league with the Pope for the extirpation of heresy; 
but various misfortunes awaited him, especially in Italy, where his 
forces were defeated with great slaughter. Sienna threw itself into 
the hands of France, and the Turks gained possession of Transylva- 
nia. The marriage of his son Philip with Mary, queen of England, 
seemed in some degree to compensate these losses by a prospect of 
annexing that important island to his dominions. 

At length, in the year 1555, wearied by public business and the 
cares of empire, he resolved to resign his crown to his son Philip, 
and retire to seclusion and rest for the remainder of his days. At 
a public assembly at Brussels, he renounced the government of 
the Netherlands to his son, and soon afterwards that of Spain and 
the vast acquisitions in America. Of all his immense possessions, 
he reserved for himself only a pension of an hundred thousand 
crowns ; and, with a few attendants, retired to a small dwelling near 
the monastery of St. Just. Here, for a little more than two years, 
he occupied himself in devotion or quiet amusement, and in 1558 
died, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. 

Daring the forty years in which he had controlled the destinies 
of Spain and of great part of Europe, the most important events had 
transpired. The Reformation, in spite of fierce and cruel opposition, 
had continued to proceed with giant strides. The most extensive 
and wonderful conquests had been made in the western world ; and 
Spain, which had so suddenly risen into importance, perhaps reached 
under Charles the acme of her greatness. The numerous and deso- 
lating wars which his pride, ambition, and bigotry had caused, 
though inflicting great injuries on his subjects in Italy and the 
Netherlands, had only increased the reputation of Spain, and the 
dread of her power among the surrounding nations. 




CHAELES I. OF SPAIN (THE EMPEROR CHARLES Y OE GERMANY), 



RESKJNl NR 'I HE rR(>-SVM TO HIS RON PHIT.IP 



In n great n.ssenil.lj, the eiaj)eror recounted his various civil n.ud uilitary 
services to the State, and declared his intention, heing ■worn out "with the cares 
of public life, to I'esign the hurden of royalty to his son. Having addressed a 
fe-w impressive -words to the latter, -who knelt, and kissed his hand, Charles 
solemnly divested himself of his numerous dominions, and hesfowed them on 
the prince. He then retired tc a secluded abode, where the bviei' I'emainder of 
his life "WHS paosed in t rmiqu illity and devotion 



SPAIN. 



871 



CHAPTER ?, 



FROM THE ABDICATION OF CHARLES I. TO THE DEATH OF 
CHARLES II. THE LAST MONARCH OF THE AUSTRIAN LINE. 

Philip II., wlio thus in 1555 ascended the Spanish throne, inherited 
the feuds which his father, overwearied with contention, had laid 
down. A truce for five years, which he had concluded with France, 
was broken up by the intrigues of the Pope. To overawe the latter, 
a force of ten thousand men, under the duke of Alva, was despatched 
into his dominions, where a French army supported his authority. 
A force of fifty thousand, reinforced from England, was assembled in 
the Netherlands, and placed under command of the duke of Savoy, 
one of-the ablest generals of his time. He defeated the French with 
great loss before the contested town of St. Quentin, and made pris- 
oner of their leader, the gallant Montmorency. Other advantages 
followed ; and nothing but the indecision of Philip prevented his 
forces from marching in triumph to Paris itself 

Henry II., king of France, immediately recalled the duke of 
Guise from Italy, and that brilliant commander, by the capture of 
Calais and Thionville, revived the spirits of the nation. The hostile 
armies, in great force, were encamped near each other on the frontiers 
of Picardy; but negotiation prevented further hostilities; and in 
1559 a peace was concluded by the marriage of Philip with the 
daughter of Henry — ^his first wife, Mary of England, having lately 
expired. 

An expedition despatched for the recovery of Tripoli, under the 
duke of Medina Cseli, met with signal disaster, being surprised by 
Piali, the Turkish commander, with the whole naval force of the 
Ottoman empire. Forty gallies were sunk or captured by the Infi- 
dels. A great armament, fitted out in turn by the sultan and the 
dey of Algiers, however, received a sharp and decisive repulse from 
the Christian garrisons of Oran and Mazal quiver (A. D. 1563). These 
hostilities induced fresh severities toward the unfortunate Morescoes, 
or Moorish inhabitants of Spain, and prepared the way for their 
ultimate expulsion. 

About this time Philip transferred his court from Toledo to 



372 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Madrid, and issued a formal manifesto, annexing all the Spanish- 
American discoveries to the crown of Castile. His son, Don Carlos, 
who had formed an intention of retiring from the kingdom, was 
placed in confinement, and soon afterwards died. 

A tyrannical edict, enforcing an entire change of the language, 
customs, and national habits of the Morescoes, was met in Granada 
by a spirited revolt, and the Mahometan inhabitants, proclaiming a 
king of their own, maintained a determined resistance for several 
years, during which some of the finest provinces in Spain were 
depopulated by civil war. The rebellion was finally suppressed, 
with the death of the Mahometan leader. At this time (A. D. 1571) 
Don John of Austria, brother of the king, with a large force of 
Christian confederates, gained a most splendid naval victory over 
the Turks in the gulf of Lepanto. Fifty-five of the Infidel galleys 
were destroyed, and one hundred and thirty were taken. 

On the death of Henry of Portugal, the Spanish monarch laid 
claim to the vacant throne ; and after two victories, gained by his 
general, the duke of Alva, succeeded in obtaining a reluctant sub- 
mission to his pretensions. Appointing a regent, he returned to 
Spain, where his attention was soon engaged by preparations for the 
most formidable expedition which Spain had ever despatched to a 
hostile coast. This mighty armament, called the "invincible arma- 
da," was destined for the subjugation of England, and its forcible 
conversion to the Catholic faith. With thirty thousand men, in an 
hundred and thirty vessels, it sailed from Lisbon on the 27th of 
May, 1581. Tempests and the active annoyance of the English 
fleet, however, effected the complete destruction or dispersion of 
this vaunted expedition ; and the English, in their turn, assuming 
the offensive, made successful descents upon the Portuguese coast, 
took the city of Cadiz, and did immense damage to the Spanish 
marine. A powerful fleet, which was again fitted out to avenge 
these injuries, shared a similar fate with the armada, being almost 
entirely destroyed by storms, or driven back to the port of Ferrol. 

The king expired in 1597, in the seventy-first year of his age, 
and in the forty-second of a reign distinguished by selfishness, 
bigotry, and disappointed ambition. 

His son Philip IH., upon the death of Elizabeth of England, con- 
cluded peace with her successor, the mean and pedantic James I., 
at whose court Spanish influence was thenceforth predominant. A 
destructive war with the United Provinces of the Netherlands, was 



SPAIN. 



373 



also terminated ; and these patriotic states, which had suffered the 
most cruel persecution under the late monarch and his general, the 
remorseless duke of Alva, subsequently, after a noble and protracted 
struggle, obtained their independence. The intolerance of the eccle- 
siastics, in 1609, occasioned a fresh edict for the expulsion of the 
Moors ; and these unhappy people were, on several occasions, trans- 
ported or banished to Africa — a piece of barbarous severity which 
cost the Spanish crown the loss of several hundred thousand of its 
most useful and industrious subjects. 

In 1619 the king made a tour through Portugal, and was received 
with magnificent demonstrations. In a full assembly of the states, 
his son was acknowledged heir- apparent to the Portuguese crown. 
Hostile demonstrations in Switzerland and Italy were suppressed by 
prompt and decided movements, and Philip, after a reign of twenty- 
three years, distinguished by no very brilliant national achievements, 
expired, and left the crown to his son Philip IV. (A. D. 1621). 

Under the rule of this prince and his indiscreet minister Olivarez, 
Portugal threw off the Spanish yoke, and proclaimed as her king, 
under the title of John IV., the duke of Braganca, the founder of a 
new royal dynasty. The province of Catalonia revolted, and the 
Spanish arms were completely unsuccessful in attempting to suppress 
this rebellion or to recover the forfeited crown of Portugal. The 
unfortunate and unpopular minister was disgraced and banished. 
Fresh reverses and signal defeats by the Dutch and the French soon 
ensued (A. D. 1645). 

The war with Portugal was for many years obstinately continued ; 
but in 1661, the Marquis de Carracena, commanding the Spanish 
forces, was defeated with immense loss on the plain of Montes 
Claros. Four thousand veteran soldiers of his army were slain, and 
a greater number taken prisoners. The Portuguese immediately 
invaded Andalusia. 

The king did not long survive these successive misfortunes. He 
expired in 1666, in the forty-fifth year of a reign continually troubled 
by insurrection and warfare, mostly disastrous. His son Charles II., 
at the age of four, succeeded him, under the regency of the queen- 
mother, who acknowledged the independence of Portugal, and con- 
cluded a dishonourable peace with Louis XIV., king of France. 
After the young monarch attained his majority, the queen, who, 
much to the detriment of the nation, had long controlled its interests, 
was removed from court, and the chief power became vested in Don 



374 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY.. 

Juan, tlie governor of Arragon, an illegitimate brother of the late 
king, and a man of high talent and sagacity. His death restored 
her to her former position, and the country, from mal-administration, 
suffered exceedingly. France and Portugal made serious encroach- 
ments on the Spanish territory, and peace could only be obtained on 
the most humiliating and disadvantageous conditions (A. D. 1684). 
The insolence of Louis XIV., five years afterwards, occasioned a 
renewal of hostilities, in which Spain succeeded in coping with her 
adversary with a more favourable result. The arrival of great 
quantities of silver from her wealthy colonies in America enabled 
her to protract the contest upon more advantageous terms. At the 
peace of Eyswick, in 1697, most of the recent conquests were mutu- 
ally restored. 

The king was without offspring, and the intrigues and clamours 
respecting the succession deprived him of peace. His disappoint- 
ment in regard to heirs was supposed to be the result of witchcraft 
or the malignity of some evil spirit; and accordingly, he was sol- 
emnly exorcised, but, as may be supposed, without any satisfactory 
effect. A partition of the Spanish empire, at his death, had 
already been resolved on by the principal powers of Europe ; but 
by the influence of the Pope and his confessor, he was prevailed on 
to make a will in favour of Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of his 
eldest sister and of Louis XIV. He soon after expired, in the 
thirty -fifth year of his reign, and with him ended the branch of the 
house of Austria, which had given five sovereigns to the Spanish 
nation (A. D. 1701). 



CHAPTER ?L 

THE HOUSE OF BOUEBON, UNTIL THE PRENCH REYaiUTION. 

The new sovereign was received with much loyalty and enthu- 
siasm ; and, by his kindness of heart, aiFability, and clemency, con- 
ciliated the hearts of all. The foreign relations of Spain were now 
for a considerable time managed by Louis, whose intrigues had 



SPAIN. 



375 



placed Ms grandson on the throne; and whose exultation at the 
success of his schemes had broken forth in the significant remark 
that "the Pyrenees were no more." An insurrection in Naples ere 
lono- compelled the youthful monarch to embark in person for that 
valuable dependency of the Spanish crown ; and by his clemency 
and generosity, he soon revived a spirit of loyalty and content. 
Not long afterwards, he highly distinguished himself at the battle 
of Lazara, in the war which the imperial and allied forces were then 
waging against France. 

On returning to his kingdom, the most formidable difficulties 
beset his throne. The "war of the succession," occasioned by the 
ambition of the house of Austria and the anti-Gallican enmities of 
William III. of England, immediately broke out. The Germanic 
empire, with England, Holland, and other continental powers, had 
resolved to check the increasing power and ambition of the French 
monarch. In accordance with this scheme, the Archduke Charles 
of Austria, great-grandson of Philip III., supported by these allies 
and by Portugal, laid claim to the crown of Spain, and was pro- 
claimed at Yienna, under the title of Charles III. The important 
fortress of Gibraltar was taken by an English squadron, under Sir 
George Eooke. An attempt to regain it was unsuccessful, and was 
attended with prodigious loss. The Portuguese soon gained pos- 
session of several important towns ; and the national embarrassment, 
caused by these losses, and by the entire destruction of the Spanish 
commerce, was yet further augmented by the popular prejudice 
against French customs and influence. 

An English fleet, under the earl of Peterborough and Admiral 
Shovel, landed two thousand men at Barcelona. The city was 
taken, and shortly after all Catalonia and Valencia acknowledged 
the claim of the archduke. The king hastened to the scene of 
action, assisted by the French; but was compelled to make a 
disastrous retreat. 

The chief nobles being convoked, announced their determination 
steadfastly to support the new dynasty; and Madrid, which had 
been taken by the allied forces under the archduke and Peterbo- 
rough, was soon reconquered by the rightful monarch. In 1707, 
the confederates, under the Marquis de las Minas and the earl of 
Gal way, again took the field with sixteen thousand men. They 
sustained, however, a most overwhelming defeat at the battle of 
Almanza, and their standards, baggage, and artillery fell into the 



376 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

hands of the royal forces. Arragon and Valencia were severely 
punished for their late defection. 

In a subsequent campaign, the. pretender, by a victory of his 
general, Count Staremberg again gained possession of the capital; 
but was soon compelled to retire, and experienced such further dis- 
asters as induced him to relinquish his attempts, and to return to 
his hereditary dominions. In 1713, a peace was concluded, by 
which the title of the Spanish house of Bourbon to the crown of 
Spain, America, and the Indies, was formally recognised by Austria. 

The kingdom, in an interval of peace which succeeded these civil 
dissensions, sloAvly recovered its prosperity; and by the talented 
administration of Cardinal Alberoni was once more placed in a 
respectable and somewhat formidable European position, Philip V. 
expired in 1746, after a reign of nearly forty-six years, a great part 
of which had been disturbed by faction, rebellion, and foreign 
interference. 

The reign of his son and successor, Ferdinand YL, was marked 
by no events of much national importance. At his death, in 1759, 
his brother, Charles III,, who had held the crown of Naples, suc- 
ceeded to the throne. His attachment to the interests of his family 
in France speedily involved him in war with Great Britian and Por- 
tugal ; which, however, after some disasters to Spain, was ended by 
treaty in 1763, In attempting to introduce the French dress and 
customs into his kingdom, the king strongly provoked the national 
prejudices and antipathies of the Spaniards, An edict, suppressing 
flapped hats and long cloaks, their apparel from time immemorial, 
excited the most violent insurrections. In Madrid eighty of his sol- 
diers were killed, and the fury of the popvilace was only appeased by 
the dismissal of his minister and the annulment of the obnoxious 
requirement. The Jesuits, whom the king suspected of fomenting 
these disturbances, were, not long afterwards, to the surprise of all 
Europe, expelled from the kingdom in a body. 

In 1775, the most extensive preparations were made for an inva- 
sion of Algiers, which by its piracies still continued a pest to all 
the Christian nations on the Mediterranean. An immense armament, 
commanded by Don Pedro Castejon and Count O'Eeilly, proceeded 
to the Infidel sea-port, and effected a landing ; but after an obstinate 
engagement of thirteen hours, was compelled to reembark, and leave 
the enterprise unaccomplished. 

Four years afterwards, Spain took the part of France in her 



SPAIN. 



377 



hostilities with Great Britain, and made strenuous efforts, tliougli 
without success, to regain the fortress of Gibraltar. The British 
settlements on the Mississippi were indeed reduced ; but the Spanish 
marine suffered several severe reverses from the superiority of that 
of the enemy. 

The siege of Gibraltar, which had been for a long time fruitlessly 
protracted, was in 1782 renewed with great vigour. An hundred 
and seventy pieces of the heaviest artillery played without intermis- 
sion upon the devoted town, which was soon laid in ruins, with the 
most terrible carnage among its unfortunate inhabitants. The gar- 
rison, protected by their natural and almost impregnable defences, 
suffered comparatively little, and even made a daring and successful 
sally, by which a great part of the enemies' works were destroyed. 
Fort St. Philip, however, after a long and gallant resistance, was 
compelled to capitulate to the united French and Spanish forces ; its 
few remaining defenders, as they laid down their arms, exclaiming 
with energy, that they surrendered them to God, and not to the 
enemy. 

A grand attempt for the reduction of the chief citadel was now 
made. The army, increased by French auxiliaries to forty thousand 
men, pressed the attack vigorously from the land, while a number 
of floating batteries, of the most powerful construction, played upon 
the fortress from the water. The allied fleet, overwhelming in force 
and number, cruised off the entrance of the straits to prevent any 
succour despatched to the garrison by sea. So certain was the fall 
of this long-disputed stronghold considered, that the Spanish nobility 
thronged to the scene, and the French princes repaired thither from 
Versailles, in full expectation of witnessing the humiliation of the 
British. The latter, only seven thousand in number, under their 
brave commander, General Elliot, determined to resist to the last. 
For many hours the fortress sustained a tremendous fire, the heavi- 
est and most incessant which had yet been known in warfare; but 
finally the destruction of the floating batteries by fire, and the panic 
which this occasioned among the besiegers, saved the garrison from 
their immediate danger. The attempt to gain possession by storm 
was relinquished, though a close siege by a powerful military and 
naval force was still continued. Nevertheless, Lord Howe, the 
British admiral, in spite of the greatly superior force of the enemy, 
sailed through the straits in a tempest which dispersed their vessels, 
and fully relieved the garrison. 



378 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

A treaty of peace was signed in 1783, and the immense military 
preparations, provided for the reduction of Gibraltar, were directed 
against Algiers. That piratical city was accordingly bombarded 
for two successive years, with no other result than the infliction of 
considerable damage; and in 1786, by the intervention of the Sub- 
lime Porte, a treaty of ]3eace was concluded, by which the war 
between Spain and the African Mahometans, waged for so many 
centuries, was brought to a close. 

Florida Blanca, the prudent and moderate minister of Charles, 
made several internal improvements, and succeeded in materially 
checking the power of the Inquisition. This horrible tribunal, which, 
in the reign of Philip V., had consigned three thousand persons to 
the flames, the galleys, or perpetual imprisonment, exercised its 
oppression during this reign upon only sixty victims — an improve- 
ment in some degree due to the more enlightened spirit of the age, 
and partly to the horror which its atrocities had excited in other 
European nations. 

The brief remainder of the king's reign was harassed by domestic 
intrigue, and saddened by domestic misfortunes. He expired in 
1789, in the seventy-third year of his age, and the twenty -ninth of 
his reign. His son Charles lY., at the age of forty, succeeded to 
the crown. He was a prince of very moderate abilities, and became 
the object of general ridicule from his wilful blindness to the utter 
profligacy of his wife, the infamous Louisa Maria. Her influence 
soon raised her chief lover, Manuel de Godoy, to the highest rank 
of the nobility, and placed him at the head of political affairs. 



CHAPTEH TIL 

CHARLES IV. ASCENDANCY OF FRANCE. ABDICATION OF 

THE KING. 

Spain, like most of the other European nations, was speedily 
involved in the great struggle arising from the French Eevolution. 
The king, anxious to save the life of his relative, the unfortunate 
Louis XVI., had addressed a letter in his behalf to the sanguinary 



SPAIN. oyg 

National Convention. His application was sullenly rejected, and 
on the 4tli of March, 1798, the rash and irritable faction which then 
controlled the destinies of France declared war against the Spanish 
government— alleging as the principal cause this very justifiable 
interference. A powerful Spanish army, reinforced by Portuguese 
auxiliaries, hereupon crossed the Pyrenees, under Picardos, the gov- 
ernor of Catalonia, took the important frontier fortress of Bellegarde, 
and wintered in the enemies' country. In the following spring, 
however, they were twice defeated by Dugommier, with a loss of 
their equipage, artillery, and nine thousand prisoners. They were 
compelled to retreat, and Bellegarde, which they had garrisoned, 
after a siege of five months, surrendered. The victor, in his turn, 
immediately invaded Catalonia, and, at his death in a fresh victory, 
his forces, commanded by Perignon, again and again defeated the 
Spaniards, and drove them from their strongest intrenchments. The 
latter also sustained similar misfortunes in the warfare at the western 
end of the Pyrenees. 

The complete defeat of their forces at Sistella in 1795, and the 
threatened advance of the French upon their capital itself, reduced 
the king and his minister to sue for peace; a treaty was presently 
concluded, by which France relinquished her late conquests, receiv- 
ing in return the full possession of St. Domingo, and the political 
support of the Spanish government. The king, in his joy at these 
favourable conditions, bestowed on Godoy the title of "Prince of the 
Peace," by which he has been most generally known. From this 
time until her memorable struggle for independence, the policy of 
Spain became entirely subservient to that of her victorious enemy 
and ally. 

In 1796, an alliance, offensive and defensive, was signed between 
the two nations, and war was speedily declared against England by 
the court of Madrid. In the following year, Cordova, the Spanish 
admiral, with twenty-seven sail of the line, encountered Sir John 
Jervis, who commanded only fifteen of the British, off Cape St. 
Vincent. Notwithstanding this disparity of force, the English gained 
the victory, taking four ships of the hostile squadron, and compelling 
the remainder to retreat into the port of Cadiz. The island of Trin- 
idad was soon after taken by an English expedition, and Minorca, 
one of the most important stations in the Mediterranean, met a sim- 
ilar fate. Eussia, displeased at the alliance with the French republic, 
in 1798 declared war against Spain. 



380 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

ISTapoleon, at this time first consul, extorted from his Spanish 
allies the cession of Louisiana, and even compelled the unfortunate 
king to join in a hostile alliance against Portugal, (the royal family 
of which were his immediate connections,) and to occupy the terri- 
tory with an armed force. That feeble and unprotected nation was 
forced to pay a large sum to her oppressor, and to cede a portion of 
Brazil for the enlargement of the French colonies. Godoy, to whose 
influence were ascribed this utter subservience to France and the 
other national misfortunes, was universally detested ; and a powerful 
party soon rallied around Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, the eldest 
son of Charles, and consequently heir to the throne. 

The brief and hollow peace which, at the beginning of the nine- 
teenth century, had been concluded between France and England, 
was speedily broken (March, 1803) by the perfidious conduct of the 
latter, and a war recommenced, destined to involve all Europe in 
fresh calamities. Large subsidies were drawn from Spain to aid 
the French government, and England, though by especial agreement 
at peace with that country, despatched, in 1804, a piratical expedition, 
which captured several of her treasure-ships, under circumstances 
calculated strongly to arouse the national pride and desire of ven- 
geance. War against England was accordingly again declared in 
the following month, by the Spanish government, and naval hostili- 
ties were immediately recommenced. On the 21st of October, 1805, 
the combined French and Spanish fleets, with forty vessels, under 
Admirals Villeneuve and Gravina, were encountered by the renowned 
Nelson, with thirty sail, off Cape Trafalgar. This action, perhaps 
the most memorable in naval warfare, resulted in the almost complete 
capture or destruction of the superior force ; and left the supremacy 
of Britain on the seas almost without the shadow of an opposition. 

The alarm which the grasping policy of Napoleon had so gener- 
ally excited, finally extended even to the court of Spain; and a 
secret treaty was made with Russia, Portugal, and England, for a 
joint movement against their common enemy on a favourable oppor- 
tunity. Li October, 1806, the Prince of the Peace had the impru- 
dence to issue a proclamation, calling the people to arms in a manner 
which sufficiently indicated an intention to commence hostilities with 
France. In the same month occurred the wonderful campaign of 
Prussia, and the complete subjugation of that hostile country. The 
Spanish government, in alarm, humiliated itself before the victor. 
The obnoxious order was instantly recalled and countermanded, the 



SPAIN. 381 

most humble entreaty was used to deprecate the imperial resentment, 
and money was lavishly employed among the most influential of the 
French diplomatists. 

Napoleon, though doubtless determined from this moment to 
overthrow a government upon which he could place no reliance, 
appeared satisfied for the present with the most abject submission 
to all his commands, and the contribution of a large body of Spanish 
troops to assist in his northern campaigns. A treaty was forthwith 
made for the partition of Portugal, and its occupation by the French 
and Spanish forces. It was announced in the Momteur, the imperial 
organ at Paris, that "the house of Braganza had ceased to reign;" 
and General Junot, with a large army, advanced rapidly to Lisbon. 
The royal family fled on his approach, and took shipping in haste 
for their colony of Brazil. 

. The emperor, once in possession of the kingdom, paid small heed 
to the agreement for sharing the spoil with his Spanish dependants. 
The domestic quarrels of the latter came opportunely in aid of 
his ambitious designs. Ferdinand privately sought his protection 
against his parents and the Prince of the Peace ; and the latter, in 
turn accusing the heir-apparent of a conspiracy, held him for a time 
in arrest. The northern provinces of Spain, at the commencement 
of the year 1808, were filled vv'ith French troops, professedly on 
their march to Portugal. Godoy vainly endeavoured to recall from 
that country a counterbalancing force. Secret orders were despatched 
to the French generals to possess themselves dexterously of all the 
Spanish fortresses within their reach. By various stratagems, this 
scheme was accomplished with the most perfect success; and Barce- 
lona, Figueras, Pamplona, and St. Sebastian, were soon strongly 
garrisoned by the intruders. 

Murat took command of the French forces, and his master, though 
still maintaining an appearance of friendliness toward the royal 
family, assumed more openly the tone of a. dictator. The king and 
queen, with their favourite, now thought of seeking a refuge, like 
the family of Braganza, in their American colonies. This scheme 
was opposed by Ferdinand; and the inhabitants of Madrid, enraged 
at Godoy, to whom they ascribed these misfortunes, destroyed his 
palaces, and forced him to seek safety in concealment. The king, 
yielding to the storm, publicly dismissed from office the obnoxious 
minister, who was with difficulty saved from the fury of the popu- 
lace, and committed to prison. Two days afterwards, Charles, weak- 



382 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

minded, and terrified by these disorders, resigned his crown in favour 
of Ferdinand — a step which filled the whole nation with enthusiastic 
rejoicing (March 20th, 1808). 



CHAPTER Ylll. 



DETHRONEMENT OF THE BOURBONS, AND ACCESSION OF JOSEPH 
BONAPARTE. RESISTANCE OF THE SPANIARDS. 

Ferdinand VII., aware of the insecure tenure of his authority, 
omitted nothing which could conciliate the French emperor; but, 
to his mortification, Murat, who marched instantly to Madrid, care- 
fully avoided any recognition of his royalty ; and his father, anxious 
to save the life of his imprisoned favourite, wrote to Napoleon, pro- 
testing against his abdication, as extorted by force. , To all Ferdi- 
nand's overtures, the arbiter of his destinies preserved an attitude 
of mysterious non-committal ; and finally, by the intrigues of the 
French officers, the prince was induced to repair to Baj^onne, across 
the frontier, and urge his claims in person before the emperor. 

He was received with courtesy; but was soon informed of Napo- 
leon's intentions that the Bourbons should cease to sit upon the 
throne of Spain. In exchange for the required cession of his title, 
he was promised the kingdom of Etruria. On perceiving his obsti- 
nate reluctance to this arrangement. Napoleon ordered Murat to^ 
forward to Bayonne the old king and qneen, with their imprisoned 
favourite, the Prince of the Peace. On their arrival, the latter was 
forthwith released, and reinstated in his former office. The weak 
and vacillating Charles was immediately persuaded to nominate 
Murat lieutenant-general of the kingdom ; and on the following day 
to make a formal cession to Napoleon of Spain and the Indies, 
receiving in return the means of a luxurious residence in France. 
At the meeting of Ferdinand and his parents before the emperor, a 
most revolting scene of mutual abuse and recrimination ensued, 
which, however, resulted in the most entire renunciation of all his 
rights in favour of his father, who had already transferred them to 



SPAIN. 383 

Napoleon. With his brother and his uncle, he was then conducted 
as a state prisoner to Valencaj. 

The Spanish population, especially in Madrid, disappointed in 
regard to the execution of Godoy, which they had eagerly expected, 
and resenting the French interference, was now ready for revolt. 
The transmission of the remainder of the royal family to Bayonne 
excited a furious insurrection in the capital, and many of the French, 
taken by surprise, were cruelly massacred. Murat, indeed, sup- 
pressed this outbreak with much slaughter, and executed a great 
number of the insurgents ; but the flame of revolution speedily broke 
out in the provinces, and all Spain ere long was involved in hostili- 
ties. Juntq^^ or councils of the most prominent persons, were formed 
at once in all the provincial districts and most of the larger towns ; 
troops were levied, and desperate efforts were resolved on to rid the 
peninsula of its invaders. Great cruelty and atrocity accompanied 
this outbreak, and many persons were massacred by the infuriated 
insurgents; among them, several of the local governors, who vainly 
attempted to suppress the movement. The junta of Seville, which 
was acknowledged as the chief of these councils, under its president, 
Saavedra, on the 6th of June, 1808, proclaimed Ferdinand YII,, and 
in his name declared war against France and ISTapoleon. 

Orders were issued for the immediate enrolment of the entire male 
population, and despatches w^ere forwarded to England, proposing 
alliance and entreating armed assistance. In Portugal, these tidings 
were received with enthusiasm, and a general insurrection of that 
kingdom, which Junot was unable to suppress, soon ensued. 

Napoleon had resolved to place his brother Joseph, then king 
of Naples, upon the Spanish throne; and accordingly summoned a 
species of Cortes^ composed of many prominent representatives of 
the church, the nobility, and the citizens. Ninety-one in number, 
they assembled at Bayonne on the 15th of June ; and, whether from 
views of policy, necessity, or private interest, subscribed to the con- 
stitution which Bonaparte had prepared, and recognised his brother 
as king of Spain and the Indies. (Murat, to reward his late services, 
received the throne of Naples, thus left vacant.) On the 9th of July, 
the new sovereign entered his kingdom, and issued a most concili- 
ating proclamation ; but was compelled to wait at Yittoria until his 
generals should clear a path to his capital. 

England, suflEiciently anxious for an opportunity to embarrass her 
ancient enemy, had eagerly responded to the call of the insurgent 



384 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

juntas; prisoners had been released, supplies despatched, and mili- 
tary assistance promised. Murat, on his part, before leaving the 
kingdom, had taken active measures to suppress the popular move- 
ment, and had ordered powerful forces into the most disaffected 
provinces — in some cases with success, and in others with failure. 
The Spanish forces, indeed, at an early day, experienced a signal 
defeat. Tlie Castihan and Galician armies, thirty thousand strong, 
under Cuesta and Blake, lay encamped at Rio Seco. On the 14th of 
July, Bessieres, the French commander, with only half that number, 
attacked and drove them from their position, with a loss of seven 
thousand men; and Joseph, six days afterwards, made a triumphal 
entry into Madrid. The public discontent, however, was sufficiently 
manifest. Tapestry, according to order and to the ancient custom, 
was indeed hung from the windows, but it was ragged and soiled; 
and the bells, put in motion by command of the authorities, tolled 
as for a funeral. 

The late success of the French was soon after counterbalanced by 
the misfortune of Dupont, who, with nearly twenty thousand men, 
was surrounded at Baylen by a greatly superior force of Spaniards, 
under Castanos, and compelled to surrender. The agreement to 
transport the prisoners . to France was violated ; numbers were put 
to death ; and the remainder were confined in hulks at Cadiz, where 
the greater portion of them miserably perished. The spirits and 
confidence of the insurgents were thus highly elevated, and those of 
the new sovereignty proportionately depressed; and Joseph, after a 
residence at his capital of only ten days, once more withdrew to 
Vittoria. Saragossa, the capital of Arragon, was besieged by the 
French fc7 two months with great energy; but the garrison and 
citizens. ' under Palafox, made such a brave and determined resist- 
ance, that the city, though almost laid in ruins, still held out. This 
siege was distinguished by the bravery of a young woman, ''the 
Maid of Saragossa," who tended a piece of artillery which the garri- 
son had deserted, and vowed never to quit it while a Frenchman 
remained before the city. The besiegers, wearied out, were finally 
compelled to retreat, 

" Foiled by a woman's hand, before a battered wall." 



SPAIN. 335 



\J Jidi JX JJ di oli a XtA) 



THE PENINSULAE WAR. 

Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards tlie duke of Wellington) 
landed in Portugal in August, with thirteen thousand men. After 
some indecisive hostilities, the French forces, under Junot, evacuated 
that country on favourable conditions ; and an opportunity was pre- 
sented for the British arms to cooperate with those of the insurgent 
Spaniards. But the latter, attached only to their own principalities, 
and never fairly impelled by a universal national sentiment, could 
agree upon no system of united operations. The numerous juntas, 
delighted with their new power, were unwilling to relinquish any 
portion of it to a central authority; and the opportunity afforded 
by the victory of Baylen was thus permitted to fall to the ground. 

A central junta of thirty -five members, under the presidency of 
the aged Florida Blanca, was at length appointed. But the time for 
effective action appeared to have passed. An hundred thousand 
men were now pouring into Spain, under command of the celebrated 
Ney, and Napoleon was expected speedily to arrive, and take the 
chief direction in person. Before his arri- \ however, the Spanish 
armies, composed of an hundred and thirty i lousand men, in differ- 
ent divisions, under Blake, Belvedere, Castafios, and Palafbx, were 
formed in a crescent around the invaders. The people and the jwita 
were eager to hear of a pitched battle ; but their generals, better 
knowing the disparity of the two forces in courage and discipline, 
waited for fresh reinforcements. 

The English, embarrassed by the bad conduct of their allies, were 
unable to make any effectual advance ; and Blake, who first engaged 
the enemy, was defeated by Lefebvre. Napoleon himself entered 
Spain in November, and his genius was soon apparent in the suc- 
cessive defeat and dispersion of each of the hostile armies. The 
junta fled in dismay, and on the 5th of December the victorious 
emperor entered Madrid. 

The haughty tone which he assumed, and the salutary reforms 
which he immediately effected in ecclesiastical abuses, kept up the 
national exasperation ; which, however, he little heeded, being espe- 
25 



386 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

ciallj bent upon reducing the soutli of Spain and Portugal, and 
expelling the English, who had now been considerably reinforced. 
General Moore, who, with twenty-five thousand men, had attempted 
to create a diversion in favour of the Spanish forces, was compelled 
to retreat to the sea-coast, with his army reduced, by suffering and 
want of discipline, to a disorderly rabble. Napoleon, recalled to the 
north by news of the menacing attitude of Austria, relinquished the 
pursuit to Marshal Soult, who, with a greatly superior force, pressed 
hard upon the retiring ranks of the English. The latter reached 
Oorunna; but before they could embark, were obliged to fight a 
severe battle, in which the honour of their arms was fully redeemed, 
though at the expense of the life of their brave and devoted leader 
(January 17th, 1809). 

The Spanish arms, meanwhile, had met with fresh reverses, and 
Saragossa, into which Palafox, after his defeat, had thrown himself, 
was again closely besieged. "War to the knife" was the only 
answer which he returned to an attempt at negotiation. Neverthe- 
less, after a siege of several months, distinguished by all the horrors 
of war and pestilence, the city was compelled to capitulate. It is 
calculated that, at this time, there were two hundred and seventy 
thousand French troops distributed at different places in the 
peninsula. 

Joseph, on the 22d of January, had reentered Madrid, where he 
was received with much apparent loyalty and affection; and plans 
were laid for the immediate reconquest of Portugal. Soult, who 
was now appointed to the chief command, took Oporto by storm, 
but was unable to subdue the refractory kingdom, strongly aided 
by reinforcements from England, and directed by the genius of 
Wellesley, who in April arrived as commander-in-chief He was 
compelled to retreat in a disastrous manner, and the English com- 
mander marched into Spain for the purpose of assisting Cuesta, who 
was engaged with the French General Victor. The impracticability 
of the Spanish commander, who had scruples about fighting on a 
Sunday, prevented any advantage which their junction might have 
effected ; and Joseph, with Marshal Jourdan and a large force, arrived 
on the scene of action. These met, however, a severe repulse in 
attacking the allied forces at Talavera, and were compelled to retreat. 
The fruits of this advantage were lost by the incapacity of the 
Spanish officers ; Blake and Vanegas experienced fi'esh defeats, and 
Wellesley himself was forced to retreat towards the frontier. 



SPAIN. 387 

Areizao-a, who succeeded to the command of the principal Spanish 
armv, of fifty thousand men, was in his turn totally defeated at 
Ocana, and the subjugation of Spain seemed inevitable. The natural 
spirit and obstinacy of the national character, however, displayed 
itself in a manner far more formidable than in the open field. 
Numerous bands of guerrillas^ or irregular and undisciplined com- 
batants, took up arms. From their general dispersion and knowledge 
of the country, it was almost impossible to capture or defeat them, 
while they were enabled greatly to harass the enemy, and often 
treated with barbarous cruelty such of the Frenchmen as fell into 
their hands. 

On Joseph's announcement of his intention of assembling the 
Cortes, the Junta, to anticipate him, convoked them in its own name 
to meet at Cadiz, and presently retreated to the security which that 
city still afforded. Andalusia and Granada immediately submitted to 
the victors. The greater part of Spain was now in possession of the 
French ; but from the activity and ferocity of the guerrilla bands, 
they were only secure in such places as they occupied with a consid- 
erable force. Cadiz, strongly reinforced from England and Portugal, 
was closely besieged. 

Wellesley (now Lord Wellington), in the latter country, was busily 
engaged in strengthening the celebrated and almost impregnable 
"lines of Torres Vedras," which protected the capital of that kingdom 
and its immediate vicinity. Massena, early in the summer of 1810, 
advanced with a large force to effect the reconquest of Portugal, and 
to "drive the English into the sea." After taking Ciudad Eodrigo 
and the strong Portuguese fortress of Almeida, he marched toward 
Lisbon. The British commander, retreating before him, was com- 
pelled to give him battle on the ridge of Busaco — an action in 
which, from his superiority of position, he gained a decided advan- 
tage. He then retreated within his lines, the natural and artificial 
defences of which were so strong, that his pursuer was unable to 
force them. The British and Portuguese troops within these lines 
amounted to an hundred and thirty thousand men ; and Massena, 
in jSTovember, finding it impossible to effect a passage, withdrew to 
Santarem, on the Tagus. 

In the desultory warfare, which meanwhile was carried on in Spain, 
the French had been generally successful. The exertions of Soult, 
Victor, St. Cj^r, and especially Suchet, had brought much of the 
country into apparent subjection. Cadiz still held out, and thither 



388 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

the deputies to tlie Cortes^ elected in spite of tlie French, made their 
way in September, They decreed levies of an hundred and fifty 
thousand men, and immediately proceeded to frame a national con- 
stitution, based upon the most liberal and enlightened principles. 

Spain, however, was then, as now, in too deplorably ignorant 
and bigoted a condition to appreciate or receive benefit from these 
salutary reforms. The nobility, as usual, beheld with jealousy the 
popular nature of the new government; and the clergy, enraged at 
the suppression of the Inquisition and of other ecclesiastical abuses, 
threw their powerful interest into the scale against the innovating 
assembly. The injudicious attitude of the Cortes toward the Amer- 
ican colonies produced effects still more disastrous. 

These wealthy dependancies had continued firmly loyal to the 
dethroned family, and had despatched their revenues, in British 
ships of war, regularly and liberally to the support of the contest 
against France. Finding their rights overlooked, and the oppressive 
colonial restrictions unremo ved by the new government, they disowned. 
the authority of the late assemblies; and the northern provinces of 
South America, under the title of the Venezuelan Confederacy, pro- 
claimed themselves independent of the mother-country, though still 
acknowledging Ferdinand as their rightful sovereign. A useless 
attempt to suppress this movement deprived Spain of the forces 
necessary for the assertion of her own nationality. 

In March, 1811, Massena having lost great numbers of his troops, 
and perceiving his attempt on Portugal to be hopeless, from the 
increased strength of the enemy, retreated into Spain, closely pur- 
sued by the British. This retreat, in which he lost six thousand 
men, has been considered a masterpiece of military tactics, though 
disgraced by much cruelty and devastation of the country through 
which he passed. Almeida was blown up and evacuated by the 
French, and their fortress of Badajoz, on the Spanish frontier, was 
invested by a large force under Marshal Beresford. Soult advanced 
to its relief, and the English commander was compelled to raise the 
siege. In the sanguinary contest which ensued at Albuera, he suc- 
ceeded in repulsing the attack of the French marshal, but with a 
loss of seven thousand of his troops, principally English. Welling- 
ton then joined him, and the siege was renewed; but after two dis- 
astrous attempts to take the place by storm, they were compelled to 
retreat into Portugal before a superior force of the enemy. At the 
same time the French armies in other parts of the Spanish peninsula, 



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SPAIN. 389 

gained great advantages over the native troops; and met with more 
general success than at any time since the departure of the emperor. 

The Cortes, at Cadiz, were still engaged about their constitution, 
and the mutual jealousy of the various parties prevented the appoint- 
ment of , a commander-in-chief — now absolutely essential to any 
prospect of independence. All the American provinces were in full 
insurrection. Venezuela, Chili, Peru, and Buenos Ayres, were 
waging a successful revolt, Mexico, overawed by the arrival of 
some of the best Spanish regiments, was indeed reduced to a tem- 
porary submission. 

In this disastrous condition of affairs, a brilliant exploit of Lord 
Welling-ton inspired the Spaniards with fresh confidence. In Jan- 
uary, 1812, he appeared suddenly before the strong and important 
fortress of Ciudad Eodrigo ; and before Marmont, the chief French 
commander, could advance to its relief, succeeded in taking it by 
storm. This was the commencement of a spirited and successful 
campaign. Badajoz fell in a similar manner, and the French were 
compelled entirely to evacuate Estramadura and Portugal. In July, 
Marmont was completely defeated by Wellington, at Salamanca, with 
a loss of fourteen thousand men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
The victorious general marched to Madrid, which he entered on the 
12th of August, Joseph, with a greatly inferior force, retreating 
before him. The new constitution was sworn to with universal zeal, 
and the English general, under the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, 
was appointed commander-in-chief during the continuance of the war. 

The junction of the French forces compelled him, in the autumn, 
to quit the capital, and to move northward. After passing a month 
in unsuccessful attempts to storm the strong citadel of Burgos, he 
was compelled by the advance of the French to make a disorderly 
and undisciplined retreat, and take up his winter-quarters on the 
Portuguese frontier. 



390 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



EXPULSION OP THE FRENCH, AND RESTORATION OF THE ; 

BOURBONS. i 

i 
i 

The disasters which Napoleon experienced soon after these events, \ 

from his rash expedition into Eussia, seemed to present the fairest ; 
opportunity which Spain had yet seen of asserting her freedom. He 

was no longer able to supply his peninsular armies by pouring fresh | 

torrents of soldiers over the Pyrenees, but was rather in need of his | 

old companions in arms to withstand the advancing tide of the north- I 
ern confederacy. Soult, with thirty thousand veterans, was recalled, 

early in the year 1813, while fresh reinforcements enabled Welling- \ 
ton to take the field in May with seventy thousand English and 
Portuguese, in addition to the Spanish armies under Castanos and 

Espaiia. About an hundred and sixty thousand French troops were j 

still distributed in Spain. j 

After various indecisive manoeuvres, Joseph and Marshal Jourdan, | 

with the principal body of the French forces, took their stand at i 

Vittoria, resolved to make a final struggle for the Spanish crown. i 

They were posted on the very ground where, five centuries before, i 

Edward the Black Prince had defeated the renowned Constable du j 

Guesclin, and for a time preserved the crown of Spain to Peter the j 
Cruel. On the 21st of June, AVellington, with the combined British, 

Spanish, and Portuguese armies, attacked their position. In this { 

battle, decisive of the fate of Spain, the French were utterly defeated, | 
w^ith the loss of all their baggage, artillery, and equipments; and 

Joseph himself narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. ; 

The victory was actively followed up ; and ere long all the French I 
forces had retreated across the Pyrenees, except the army of Suchet 

and the garrisons of Pamplona and St. Sebastian. Soult was now i 

placed at the head of the French forces, and, by the aid of reinforce- | 
ment and reorganization, with an army of an hundred thousand men, 
resumed hostilities in the neighbourhood of the Pyrenees. He was, 
however, after some hard fighting, compelled to retreat into France ; 
and the fortress of St. Sebastian, after a defence which cost the lives 
of four thousand of the besiegers, was taken by storm, and great 



STAIN. 



391 



numbers of the garrison and the citizens were massacred. By Octo- 
ber, the English commander was enabled to cross the frontier; and 
the fall of Pamjjlona, soon after, left him at liberty to make a cam- 
paign of invasion in the French territories. The misfortunes which 
Napoleon at this time experienced in his tremendous struggle against 
the allied powers, deprived him of the means of repelling the 
invaders. 

The royal family of Spain, which had so long vanished from the 
public view, now began once more to attract attention. The old 
king and queen, with their favourite Godoy, were living quietly at 
Eome, the common refuge of deposed or abdicating princes. Fer- 
dinand, who was still detained at Yalencay, had done nothing to 
entitle himself to any other sentiment than the contempt of his 
countrymen. He had, in the most abject manner, written to con- 
gratulate Joseph on his accession to the Spanish throne, and to 
Napoleon to felicitate him on his victories. A scheme devised by 
the British for his escape he denounced to the latter, and continually 
importuned him for the hand of some princess of the Bonaparte 
family. His time, it is said, was principally occupied in embroider- 
ing a robe for some image of the Virgin Mary. The Spanish nation, 
however, ignorant of these degrading facts, or disbelieving them 
as reported by the French, preserved its loyalty and veneration 
unchanged. 

Napoleon, after his calamitous defeat at Leipsic, perceived the 
impossibility of retaining a footing on the Peninsula, and agreed to 
release his captive, and recognise him as king of Spain and the Indies, 
on condition of the renewal of former alliances and the evacuation of 
Spain by the English. By an act of the Cortes, however, any act 
of the king during his captivity had been declared nugatory; and 
the regency, through its president, the Cardinal de Bourbon, returned 
a loyal answer, but refused to comply with the stipulations. The 
prince was therefore still for the present detained in imprisonment. 

Early in the year 1814:, Lord Wellington, with the allied forces, 
resumed operations, which had been delayed by the severity of the 
weather, and pushed his invasion yet farther into the French prov- 
inces of the south. As a last resort, the emperor now commanded 
the release of Ferdinand, stipulating, however, for the safe return 
of his garrisons on surrendering the Spanish fortresses which they 
occupied. Most of these, however, were already lost through the 
treachery of Yan Halen, a renegade to both parties. The almost 



392 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF.HISTOEY. 

immediate overthrow of the imperial power, and the consequent 
abdication of Napoleon, which succeeded, made this loss, indeed, a 
matter of little moment to his fallen fortunes. 

The weak and bigoted Ferdinand was received with such enthu- 
siastic rejoicing and loyalty as would have been appropriate to the 
welcome of the highest patriotism and ability. The ignorant popu- 
lace, every where influenced by their priests, cried out as he passed, 
"Down with the Cortes!" "Long live the absolute king!" To a 
people who thus clamorously demanded slavery, their wishes were 
speedily granted. The king, disowning his former acts, at once 
assumed an arbitrary tone. He dissolved the Cortes, declaring that 
body, from the absence of the nobility and clergy, an illegal assem- 
bly, and abrogated the constitution which they had been at such 
pains to prepare. On the 13th of May he entered Madrid, where, 
on account of these measures, he was received with additional 
enthusiasm by the ignorant and priest-ridden populace. 

The chiefs of the liberal party were forthwith punished by ban- 
ishment, imprisonment, and enrolment as common soldiers. Their 
lives were spared only by the interference of the English, to whom 
the king had been so recently indebted for his crown. The Inqui- 
sition, though with limited power, was immediately reestablished. 
Thus terminated a struggle which had caused incalculable suffering 
and loss of life, and in which the sympathies of unprejudiced 
observers were perplexed between a fierce, bigoted, and slavish 
patriotism, and an enlightened foreign usurpation. 

The contest with the American colonies was still maintained, and 
Ferdinand lavished the resources of the kingdom in a vain attempt 
to reduce them to subjection. All the vast continental American 
possessions of Spain, acquired by such valour, craft, and cruelty, 
succeeded in maintaining their independence, and Cuba and Porto 
llico alone remained of her once numerous western colonies. These 
unsuccessful attempts to force an absolute government on distant 
and extensive provinces were attended with circumstances of the 
most odious and revolting cruelty. 

The king, after a bigoted and disastrous reign of nineteen years, 
died in 1833, bequeathing to his country a legacy of civil war. He 
had formally excluded his brother Don Carlos, the legitimate heir, 
from the succession, leaving his infant daughter, Isabella, heiress to 
the throne, under the regency of the Queen Maria Christina. The 
desolating civil contests which this arrangement occasioned, and which 



SPAIN. 



393 



were aggravated by tlie interposition of tlie Frencli and Britisb, 
governments, are generally known. Spain for many years was the 
theatre of a fierce partisan and guerrilla warfare, between the adhe- 
rents of Don Carlos and of the queen, in which her soil was repeat- 
edly deluged by the blood shed in private combat and massacre. 
The triumph of the latter party was assured by the protection of 
the French and British governments, and comparative tranquillity 
has been restored to Spain. 

That country, however, enslaved by superstition, and long the 
scene of unrelenting domestic hostilities, is at present in a miserable 
and deplorably unadvanced condition. No nation in Europe is so 
far behind the age in all that relates to the welfare and political 
economy of a great people. The national character, inherited from 
the days of the Inquisition, is in general revengeful, cruel, and unre- 
lenting. The savage nature of their national amusementS; and 
especially that of bull-fighting, may have some tendency to foster 
this unamiable disposition. The delight which the tortures and 
mutilation of animals bestow, in this barbarous sport, may naturally 
increase the indifference to human life and suffering, which forms 
the principal stigma of the Spanish character. In justice to this 
unfortunate people, whose opportunities for development, of late 
years, have been comparatively few, the better features of their 
character should not be overlooked. They are distinguished by 
honest}^ hospitalitj^, and a certain pride, which, if sometimes ludi- 
crous, is yet a great incentive to magnanimous actions, and a pre- 
servative against the lower and more degrading propensities. 



& E R 1 A ii; 



THE ANCIENT GERMANS. THE EMPIRE OF THE WEST. THE 

ELECTIVE EMPIRE. 

The "Germania" of the Eomans comprised a vast region of coun- 
try, extending over all the north-western portion of Europe. The 
wars and conquests of that wonderful people, who made permanent 
settlements and military stations in various parts of this territory, 
have afforded us full descriptions of its ancient inhabitants. Thoiigh 
divided into almost innumerable tribes and nations, these rude deni- 
zens of the forest all possessed a certain similarity in their national 
characteristics. The light hair and the blue eye, the huge stature 
and the rugged manners, with the fierce love of independence, were 
common to them all. Unacquainted with the arts of civilized life, 
their subsistence was dependant upon their herds and the precarious 
chances of hunting. Like most northern nations, they were addicted 
to drinking, and regarded the vague plans and reveries of intoxica- 
tion as the result of divine inspiration. It would seem, indeed, that 
unlimited confidence was not reposed in the certainty of these sug- 
gestions; for the tribes were accustomed to debate all important 
matters twice over — once in the evening, when drunk, and once on 
the following morning, when sober. 

* In a country so extensive as that great tract which bears the common name of 
Germany, and composed of such numerous principalities, each with separate and 
voluminous annals, every thing like a detailed historical account, in a work of the 
present plan, is obviously impossible. Some of the more remarkable and important 
phases of its history will be briefly stated, and the affairs of Austria and Prussia, 
which, from their relations with German states and the Germanic empii'e, are con- 
nected with the subject, will also be casually mentioned. 



GEKMANY. 



395 



Their government, in general, was strictly democratic, the leader 
of one tribe or of several being elected by a species of universal 
suffrage, and the military and civil authorities being kept carefully 
distinct. Their rude virtues were such as contain the germ of a 
high civilization — bravery in men and chastity in women being the 
first requisites of their moral code. Their theology was crude and 
barbarous, consisting in the worship of the heavenly luminaries, 
the fire, and the earth, and in reliance on their priests for the inter- 
pretation of the will of the gods. They believed in a future world, 
where the brave should meet together and carouse, drinking beer 
from immense horns or from the skulls of their enemies. 

A portion of these barbarous tribes (then called the Cimbri) waged 
an active aggressive war with the Romans from B. C. 114 to B. C. 
101, when they were completely defeated by Marius. Csesar, after 
his conquest of Gaul, repulsed their king, Ariovistus, (who wished 
to seize that inviting province,) and made two expeditions across the 
Rhine. Tiberius, acting as general to Augustus, also made a success- 
ful invasion of their country as far as the Elbe ; but soon afterwards 
(nine years before the Christian era) the defeat of Quintilius Yarns, 
and the destruction of all his forces, surrounded in a marshy forest, 
cut short this career of conquest, and caused the emperor frequently 
to exclaim, in anguish, "Varus, restore me my legions!" Despite 
the skill and courage of the renowned Germanicus, the Romans never 
fully recovered their lost ground ; and on the decline of the empire, 
those warlike nations, the Visigoths, the Heruli, the Alemanni, and 
the Franks, year by year pushed their encroachments farther on the 
imperial provinces. 

The latter people completely conquered Gaul, and founded a new 
kingdom, the modern France, of which Clovis was the first sovereign, 
and which afterwards held sway over a great part of Germany. 
During both the "Merovingian" and " Carlo vingi an" dynasties {see 
France), sanguinary wars were carried on with the Saxons and other 
Germanic nations. When, in 771, Charlemagne ascended the throne 
of the Frankish kingdom, the influence of the clergy was sufficient 
to induce him to wage an uncompromising war against the heathenish 
nations of Saxony. These were finally subdued, and their leaders, 
Wittekind and Albion, embraced Christianity. The arms of the 
nevv^ monarch were almost uniformly successful. Bavaria, Pomera- 
nia, and many other provinces, were brought under his sway, and in 
the year A. D. 800, he was solemnly crowned as "Emperor of the 



396 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

West" at Eome, by the Pope Leo II. He died in 814, and whs 
buried at Aix-la-Chapelle. Here, tAvo centuries after, the Emperor 
Otho III. foimd his mouldering remains, seated on a throne in his 
imperial robes, and royally arrayed with crown and sword. His 
dominions, at the time of his death, included France, Germany 
the Low Countries, and portions of Italy, Hungary and Spain. 

His son Louis le Debonnaire (the Good-natured), in dividing his 
territories among his rebellious sons, assigned to Louis, the third, 
(thence called Louis the German,) the extensive states of Germany. 
This sovereign, by alienating his domains to various powerful sub- 
iects, developed still further the feudal constitution of that countr3^ 
He gained by arms several accessions of territory, caused the Bible 
to be translated into the German language, and expired in 876. His 
son Charles (the Fat), who, by the death of his relations, held sway 
over nearly all the territories of Charlemagne, evinced such weakness 
and incapacity, that in 887, by the common consent of all his subjects, 
he was deposed from the government of these extensive dominions. 

On this second breaking up of the Empire of the West, the states 
of Germany, composed of powerful nobles, assumed to themselves 
the power of appointing the sovereigns of that country ; the various 
duchies and ecclesiastical principalities having by this time gained a 
complete control over the national affairs. In 912, Conrad, count 
of Franconia, was thus elected to the throne, and at his death, seven 
years afterwards, Henry, duke of Saxony. 

The Huns, a warlike and predatory people, had for some time 
ravaged the country with repeated incursions ; and the new sover- 
eign, to repel their attacks, introduced many important changes 
among the states of Germany. He walled many cities and built 
others, and compelled a ninth part of the population to take up their 
abode in these fortified places. He levied powerful forces, gained 
extensive territories from the Sclavonians, and, at the great battle 
of Merseburg, entirely routed and cut to pieces the army of the Huns. 

His son, Otho the Great, who in 936 succeeded him by election, 
married a daughter of Edward, king of England. His ascendancy 
in Italy was such, that in 962, he was crowned ernperor by Pope 
John XII., and soon afterwards deposed the pontiff himself In 
964, the council of Rome decreed to him the power of electing the 
Pope, as well as of appointing all ecclesiastical dignitaries in his 
own dominions. He died in 973. Under his immediate successors, 
no very memorable events occurred. 



GERMANY. 



397 



At this period, the emperors Lad no permanent residence, but 
lield their court in various provinces of the extensive empire, their 
state and magnificence being maintained in each bj domains espe- 
cially appropriated to their temporary support. Their relations to 
the numerous principalities of wliich they were the head was in 
general well defined and settled. "The emperor had the right of 
conferring all the great benefices; of confirming or annulling the 
election of the Popes; of convoking councils, and causing them to 
decide on ecclesiastical affairs ; of conferring the title of king on his 
vassals ; of granting vacant fiefs ; of receiving the revenues of the 
empire accruing from the domains, tolls, gold and silver mines, trib- 
utes of the Jews, and fines ; of disposing of Italy as its sovereigTi ; 
of establishing fairs and cities, and conferring civic rights ; of con- 
voking diets, and fixing their duration ; of coining, and of granting 
that privilege to the states, and of causing justice to be administered 
in the territories of the states. 

"The states, in their collective capacity as the Diet, elected the 
kings of Germany, appointed their guardians, passed laws, declared 
war, and concluded peace ; decided the disputes of other states, and 
judged and condemned other states accused of crime and rebellion. 
In their own territories, the states could form alliances among 
themselves, declare war, and build fortresses ; send ambassadors to 
foreign princes; transmit their fiefs to their sons; assemble their 
provincial states, and cause their vassals to be tried by them. The 
states were also privileged by the emperor to coin money, to estab- 
lish fairs, to exact tolls, to receive Jews, administer justice, and 
possess gold mines."* 



THE PRANCONIAN EMPERORS. CONTESTS WITH THE PAPACY. 

CoNEADE II. duke of Franconia, the first of a new line of mon- 
archs, was elected to the sovereignty in 1024, and soon afterwards 
was crowned king of Italy at Milan. His grandson, Henry lY., 
* Hawkins's Germany. 



398 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

wlio in 1056 received the crown of Germany, found the imperial 
power seriously menaced by the ambition of his great nobles and the 
increasing power of the charch. Eudolf and Bertold, the dukes of 
Suabia and Carinthia, while he was engaged in a war with the 
Saxons, united their arms against him. Having also quarrelled with 
the Pope (the famous Hildebrand), he resolved on deposing him from 
the papacy, and accordingly, in a diet, summoned at Worms, effected 
his purpose. But the pontiff, assembling more than a hundred 
bishops, launched an excommunication at his enemy and all con- 
cerned in the process ; and so universal was the influence of this 
spiritual weapon, that Henry thought it prudent to cross the Alps, 
and sue for absolution in person. For three days, in penitential 
garments and with naked feet, kneeling in winter weather without 
the walls of Canasso, he besought the forgiveness of the pontiff; who 
finally accorded him absolution, on condition that he should be 
reconciled with his feudal enemies. 

The latter were afterwards crushed, and the Pope himself was 
expelled from Pome ; but public sentiment proved too strong for the 
skill and valour of the emperor. His own children revolted against 
him, and in 1106, the fiftieth year of his reign, he was compelled to 
abdicate in favour of his son Henry Y. He soon after died of grief 
and vexation, and his body, still excommunicated, was permitted to 
remain five years above ground before released from the curse which 
interdicted burial or any rite of religion. 

The new monarch renewed the contest with the popedom; and in 
1111, seized the Pontiff, Paschalis II., in a solemn ecclesiastical 
assembly at the spiritual capital. Eleven years afterwards, the dis- 
putes in question, under Pope Callixtus TI., were adjusted by a 
compromise. 

By this time, the increasing wealth of the artificers and other 
citizens had raised them into political importance ; and many of the 
cities, by mutual alliance, gained protection from violence, and a 
species of independence. The power of the emperor, assailed both by 
the church and nobility, had dwindled almost to a shadow, when, in 
1152, the celebrated Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa, and already 
famous for his military achievements, was elected to the throne. He 
was soon involved in a fresh and obstinate conflict with the papal 
power. 

The conclave of cardinals, in 1159, had elected as Pope the brave 
and talented Alexander III. Displeased and jealous, the emperor 



GEEMANY. 



399 



summoned a rival synod at Pavia, whicTi elected an anti-pope or 
opposition pontiff, under the title of Victor IV. Alexander at once 
betook himself to excommunication, and endeavoured to enlist tlie 
sympathies of the Christian courts in his favour. But the imperial 
army, headed by the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne, advanced 
toward Eome, and he was compelled to fly to Montpelier. His cause 
was embraced by the cities of Lombardy and many others ; and 
two great factions were formed — the Guelphs, who favoured the 
Papacy, and the Grhibellines, who opposed it. 

The emperor, with his army, entered Italy, and burned several 
of the refractory cities — among them Milan, commanding that salt 
should be strewn on the place where it had stood. The fortresses 
were placed in the hands of the Ghibellines. Alexander and the 
Lombards still struggled with great courage and resolution; but 
were finally defeated, and the victor entered Rome in triumph. 
Nevertheless, ten years afterwards Milan was rebuilt, and garrisoned 
by fifteen thousand men. The emperor, in a second campaign, was 
completely defeated, and after this dispute had continued eighteen 
years, the parties, weary of war, became reconciled, and Frederic 
acknowledged Alexander his spiritual lord. In a grand public 
assembly, in the great square at Venice, he prostrated himself, and 
kissed the foot of the haughty pontiff, who, not content with this 
act of humiliation, placed his foot, in token of superiority, on the 
imperial neck. The ancient portico of St. Mark's, the theatre of 
innumerable great and fantastic scenes of history, perhaps never 
witnessed an exhibition more strange and memorable. 

* * " In that temple-porch 

Did Barbarossa fling his mantle off, 
And, kneeling, on his neck receive the foot 
Of the proud pontiff, thus at last consoled 
For flight, disguise, and many an aguish shake 
On his stone pillow. "* 

The Italian republics, founded by the talents and courage of Alex- 
ander, still retained their independence. 

In 1188, the emperor held a diet at Mainz, and there, with a great 
number of his nobility, assumed the cross, and started on a crusade. 

* The Pope, on one occasion, was compelled to fly in disguise to Venice, and is 
said to have passed the first night upon the steps of San Salvatore, near the Rialto. 
The circumstance is still recorded by a tablet at the door. 



400 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

He penetrated to Syria, defeating the Seljuk Turks on his way; but 
perished in 1190, from the effect of bathing in the cold stream of 
Saleph. 

His son Henry YI. attained greater power than any German sov- 
ereign since the days of Charlemagne. His reputation is stained by 
the mean imprisonment of the famous Eichard Coeur de Lion, king 
of England, whom he took from the duke of Austria, and detained 
for some time, extorting the payment of a heavy ransom. He had 
nearly succeeded in rendering the imperial throne hereditary, when 
death cut short his ambitious plans, before he had completed his 
thirty-second year. 

His brother Philip, who succeeded him, was murdered in 1208, 
and Otho IV., the duke of Brunswick, was elected to the throne, 
which he had already sought to gain by arms. He soon became 
embroiled with the Pope, Innocent III., who, after the customary 
fashion, launched at him an excommunication. This, and the oppo- 
sition of the German princes, compelled him to succumb before the 
pretensions of the son of Henry YL, who in 1212 entered Germany, 
and was crowned at Mainz. 

This prince (Frederick II.) was a man of high talent, energy, and 
courage. He was much attached to literatiire, and was himself an 
author of no small repute. In the heroic verses composed by the 
emperor and his associates, a high tone of religion and chivalry pre- 
vailed. The corruptions of the age were attacked; the famous 
exploits of Eichard and Saladin were celebrated; and devotion and 
romance were cultivated with equal zeal. The moral condition of 
the country at this period may be conjectured from the fact that, in 
1215, the emperor exacted from his nobility a solemn oath not to 
coin bad money, levy oppressive tolls, or steal on the highway. 

Frederick had been induced by the papal authority to undertake 
a crusade for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre. His delay in 
fulfilling this engagement procured him an excommunication from 
the Pope, Gregory IX. In 1229, he accomplished his vow, but 
without bloodshed — Meledin, the sultan of Egypt, ceding t.o him, 
without hostilities, the sovereignty of Jerusalem and other sacred 
cities of Palestine. During most of his reign the emjDeror was con- 
tinually involved in contests, spiritual or temporal, with the Popes ; 
and in 1240 was again excommunicated, on a pretended charge of 
blasphemy. The success which had attended the early part of his 
reign, finally deserted him; public prejudice, stimulated by the 







Military Costume, 

OF TITE TWTTT.FTH OENTTt^Y 







Military Costume, 

OF TH3Z THIHTKENTH CKNTURY 



GEKMANY. 



401 



enmity of the church, was against him ; various successful pretenders 
to the sovereignty started up ; and after many misfortunes, and wit- 
nessing the complete overthrow of his dignity, he died in 1252. 

"During the troubles of this period, the imperial power diminished, 
while that of the states increased ; the latter now arrogated to them- 
selves the right of deposing as well as electing the emperor, and 
claimed a voice in the creation of princes and in the distribution of 
fiefs ; in their own territories, now hereditary, the chiefs ruled with 
unbounded sway, and though much harassed by their own nobles, 
would admit of no interference from the emperor, 

"Neither Conrad, the son of Frederick, who fell in the defence 
of his hereditary possessions; nor William, who perished prema- 
turely by a different fate; nor the duke of Cornwall, brother of the 
English king, who was elected by some of the princes, and only 
knew how to sell privileges in order to reimbvirse himself for the 
sums they had cost him ; nor Alphonso of Castile, to whom others 
confided the crown ; nor any prince in Christendom, found himself 
possessed of the power requisite for restoring the royal authority in 
Germany, and the imperial dignity in Europe, to that degree of 
eminence which had been maintained during the three preceding 
centuries. The supreme magistracy of the European commonwealth 
fell into such a state of weakness, that the three-and-twenty years 
which followed the death of Frederick are termed by many an inter- 
regnum, or a period of vacation of the throne; and so we may 
consider them, without doing injustice to the character of the age."* 



u (LtL lijj iL iL Ju Jjo X i Jj o 
THE EMPIRE UNTIL THE REPORMATION. 

During this suspension of the "Holy Eoman Empire,"f great 
changes occurred, both in the political and moral aspect of the 
country. The royal domains were seized by the numerous petty 

* Hawkins's Germany. 

f So termed from the coronation of Charlemagne at Rome. 
26 



4-02 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

princes who controlled tlie different states: diets for justice were 
discontinued; private revenge and rapacity were unrestrained; and 
the nobility, from their innumerable fortresses, held complete con- 
trol over the lives and property of all within their immediate 
neighbourhood. 

Several attempts had been made to institute an effectual govern- 
ment. In 1255, the states had united for mutual defence in a grand 
league, called the "Rhenish Confederacy," and various lesser associa- 
tions had been formed for the same object. The " Hanseatic League," 
composed of eighty of the first cities in Germany, was established — 
Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic being at the head. This 
celebrated confederacy took the interests of commerce especially 
under its protection, and maintained extensive establishments for 
that purpose at London, Bruges, Bergen, and Novogorod in Russia. 

An electoral college, composed of the chief temporal and spiritual 
princes of Germany, and excluding the lesser nobility, was next 
form,ed; and this body, in 1273, alarmed by a menace of the Pope 
that he would appoint an emperor himself, proceeded to an election. 
Rudolf, count of Hapsburg, a man of great ability and political 
virtue, was their choice. He ruled with paternal benevolence, 
securing, indeed, the ascendancy of his house by providing powerful 
principalities for his children. 

At his death, in 1291, Adolf, count of Nassau, Avas elected 
emperor ; but the opposition and violence of Albert duke of A^is- 
tria, the son of Rudolf, were too powerful to be overcome. The 
latter procured the deposition of his rival, and his own election ; and 
finally, at the battle of Gelheim, in 1298, slew the unfortunate 
monarch with his own hand. The valour and policy of the new 
sovereign enabled him to overawe both the states and the people, 
and to carry out his arbitrary and ambitious designs; but his 
measures excited such enmity, that in 1308 he was murdered in 
Switzerland by his own nephew, John. 

Henry YII. (count of Luxemberg), who was elected in his stead, 
died in 1313, and for four years the country was distracted by war, 
on account of the rival pretensions of Louis of Bavaria and Frederic 
of Austria. The defeat of the latter at Muhldorf placed his rival 
on the throne. The imperial domains had become too limited for 
the support of a transitory court, and accordingly Louis V. resided in 
his hereditary domains until his death, which occured in 1347. 

The crown was then offered to Edward III. of England, and on 



GEEMANY. 



40^ 



Lis refusal to accept it, was conferred on Charles of Luxemburg 
(Charles IV.) king of Bohemia, who, by a large sum of money, pur- 
chased the concurrence of his rivals. During an administration of 
thirty years, he applied himself diligently, both in Italy and Grer- 
many, to the aggrandizement of his house and the accumulation of 
treasure. For sums of money he sold municipal freedom to various 
towns and nobles of the former country. The commencement of his 
reign was disturbed by a most atrocious persecution of the Jews, 
who were accused as the authors of a pestilence then ravaging 
Europe. Great numbers were put to death in the most barbarous 
manner, two thousand being burned at Strasburg alone. The 
nobilit}!^, who were mostly indebted to the persecuted race, abetted 
these atrocities in spite of the imperial efforts to check them. 

About this time a taste for penance and self-discipline became so 
general, that men devoted themselves to the most grievous self- 
inflicted tortures. Flagellation was greatly in vogue, and two 
hundred of these unhappy fanatics entered S]3ire on one day, and, 
having stripped, beat themselves with scourges pointed with iron. 
A papal edict was found necessary to abate this insane species of 
fanaticism, which was spreading through Europe with alarming 
rapidity. 

At the death of Charles, in 1378, his son Winceslaf was chosen in 
his place. The latter, however, gave much offence to the states by 
remaining in his kingdom of Bohemia, and indulging, it is said, in 
every species of licentiousness and cruelty. Two attempts were 
made to take him off by poison ; but these (says a grave author) 
only added to the misfortunes of the empire ; for the noxious potion, 
instead of killing him, left him affected with an unquenchable thirst, 
which resulted in habitual drunkenness and an aggravation of his 
natural eccentricity. He was deposed, after a brief reign, by the 
electors, and several high princes rapidly succeeded each other on 
the throne. 

In 1411, Sigismund, king of Hungary, brother of Winceslaf, was 
chosen to the throne, and at once proceeded to attempt the pacifica- 
tion of the empire and the suppression of the religious schisms which 
had distracted the church. In 1414, he summoned a grand ecclesi- 
astical council at Constance ; and hither, it is said, repaired eighteen 
thousand prelates and priests, sixteen thousand princes and noble- 
men, besides a great number of courtesans — the latter, by especial 
provision of the civil authorities. 



404 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

The celebrated John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who were 
among the earliest to broach reformed doctrines, had been cited 
before this tribunal; and on the 6th of July the former, after 
undergoing the mockery of a trial, was, in despite of a safe-conduct 
granted by the emperor, cruelly put to death at the stake. Jerome 
soon shared the same fate. 

The council then proceeded to settle the spiritual supremacy by 
deposing three rival Popes, and electing Martin V. as the true head 
of the church. This pontiff, aware that many of the deputies were 
anxious for reform in the scandalous abuses which had crept into 
the papacy, immediately dissolved the assembly. 

The martyrdom of Huss and Jerome awakened a spirit of deep 
resentment; and for eighteen years the emperor was compelled to 
maintain an obstinate warfare with Zisca, Procopius, and other 
enthusiastic leaders of the persecuted and now formidable sect. He 
was also engaged in disastrous hostilities with the Turks, and nar- 
rowly escaped falling into their hands at Nicopolis. 

At the death of Sigismund, in 1437, Albert and Frederick, dukes 
of Austria; filled the imperial throne. During the long reign of the 
latter, great confusion and continual civil wars prevailed in the 
empire. He died in 1493, and his son Maximilian I., a man of 
greater ability and energy, came to the throne. He endeavoured 
strenuously to enforce the municipal administration of justice; and 
to check, in some measure, the feuds among the more powerful 
chiefs, instituted a supreme court, composed of a judge, four presi- 
dents, and fifty assessors — the latter chosen by the states. He also 
maintained a body of regular troops, the famous or notorious lanz- 
hnecJits. The states, however, were too powerful and too numerous 
to be overawed by a superior of such limited means, and the emperor 
held only the position of a president of an assembly of sovereigns. 



GEKMANY. 4()5 



CHAPTEB I?, 



THE REFORMATION. MARTIN LUTHER. THE INDULGENCES, 

ETC. 

At tlie commencement of tke sixteenth century, the power of the 
papacy appeared at its height. Tainted with the deepest corruption, 
and often wielded by those who disowned its doctrines and despised 
its ceremonies, this wonderful machine of spiritual government had 
triumphed over all its foes, and now exacted reverence and tribute 
throughout the Christian world. The imperial power and ambition, 
so often opposed to it, had always, in the long run, been compelled 
to succumb to the fulminations of Rome ; and the few dauntless men 
who had dared to withstand its doctrines or usages, had mostly 
perished at the stake or on the field of battle. 

The mind of the European world had long, however, been gradu- 
ally ripening. The invention of printing had allowed men to 
compare more generally the thoughts of others with their own; and 
many were in secret awaiting an opportunity to lift their voices in 
protestation against the abuses with which all professed religion was 
so shamefully defiled. As early as May, 1510, the imperial diet, 
assembled at Augsburg, had handed to the emperor a statement of 
ten crying grievances against the Pope and clergy. A strong pop- 
ular movement of the same nature appeared two years after, in the 
Ehenish provinces. 

The circumstances were auspicious. Maximilian, a prince attached 
to learning and refinement, was not particularly devoted to the papacy. 
He had even entertained the project of seizing it into his own 
hands — a scheme which Henry YIII. of England, so far as his own 
realms were concerned, not long after realized. The learning and 
genius of Reuchlin and Erasmus, though not aiming at open reform- 
ation, had done much to prepare the vray for a purer religion and a 
system of worship less encumbered by dogmatical puerilities. It 
was in the midst of a general sense of spiritual degradation and 
oppression, and of an anxious longing for something better, that one 
of those famous men arose, who are fated to change the entire desti- 
nies of nations. 



406 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Martin Luther was born on the 10th of November, 1483, at the 
town of Eisleben, in Saxony. His parents were exceedingly poor, 
but industrious, and his father, a man of stern, ascetic disposition, 
was deeply attached to literature and religion. The resolute and 
independent temper of the young reformer caused him to be treated 
with great and needless severity, both at home and at school, and 
he has himself recorded that he was flogged fifteen times in a single 
day. Few children perhaps ever passed through a youth more 
unfavourable to the development of the finer feelings and the ame- 
nities of life — yet Luther was always remarkable for his kindness 
of heart and his universal tenderness toward all, either of the human 
or brute creation. His natural disposition was, doubtless, most 
excellent and admirable. 

At the age of fourteen, he was sent to the school of the Franciscan 
monks, at Magdeburg, and was forced to depend on public charity 
for a subsistence — often, with his companions, begging from door to 
door. In this trying situation, and afterwards in similar circum- 
stances, at Eisenach, his sweetness of disposition and desire for 
learning never forsook him. He studied ardently, and at length 
was so fortunate as to find, at the latter place, a kind-hearted family 
named Cotta, who relieved his wants, and made him a welcome 
inmate of their house. This kindness had the happiest efifect both 
on his temper and his acquirements. After a studious and bril- 
liant career as a scholar, during which he acquired the respect and 
affection of all who knew him, he went in 1501 to the university of 
Brfurth. Here his genius and acquirements soon made him the 
admiration of the whole institution. 

He had been here two years, and was twenty years old, when he 
one day discovered a Bible in the public library. With all his 
learning, he had never before encountered it, so rare a book was it 
at this time. Some small portions, incorporated into the church 
service, were all which he had supposed to exist. He read it with 
the deepest interest, and the effect on his enthusiastic mind, seeking 
for truth, was naturally strong in the extreme. 

As yet, however, he was a zealous believer in all the tenets and 
usages of the church. At the age of twenty-one, alarmed in his con- 
science by the terrors of a thunder-storm, he determined to enter a 
monastery, and devote himself entirel}^ to the service of God. 
Accordingly, amid the lamentations and dissuasions of his friends, 
"in 1505, he entered the convent of St. Augustine, at the town of 



GEEMANY. 



407 



Erfurth. Here the monks, thougli proud of so eminent a convert, 
employed liim in the meanest offices. If he tried to study or med- 
itate, he was sent through the town with a sack to beg provisions 
for the brotherhood. Nevertheless, with characteristic patience and 
gentleness, he bore his hardships cheerfully, and still sought to 
improve himself in theological study. In hopes to attain heaven 
by self-discipline, he practised the most rigid fasting, maceration, and 
watching. Nothing but a frame of iron and an indomitable spirit 
could have withstood these self-inflicted sufferings. 

All was in vain; peace of heart and assurance of salvation never 
came near him ; and his mental anguish and solitary musings were 
ascribed by the fraternity to a secret intercourse with the devil. 
He was reduced almost to a condition of utter despair, when the 
kind and soothing exhortations of Staupitz, the able and benevolent 
vicar-general, awoke him to a truer sense of real religion than could 
be found in vows or self-inflicted penance. After mental conflicts 
of so severe a nature as almost to amount to insanity, his mind 
struggled forward into something more of light and hope. 

He was made a priest in 1507, and in the following year was 
appointed as professor in the university of Wittemburg by Frederic, 
the elector of Saxony. Still a monk, he changed his abode only 
from the convent of Erfurth to that of Wittemburg. He preached, 
and a fervour and eloquence never known before carried away his 
hearers. The active and useful life which he led at this place, while 
it highly added to his reputation, disciplined his mind to a more 
healthy and hopeful condition. In 1510; he was despatched on a 
mission to Rome, whence he returned deeply scandalized by the 
corruption and hypocrisy of the Italian clergy. Soon after, he was 
made a Doctor of Divinity, 

For seven years longer, he led a life of great activity and useful- 
ness, performing manifold functions as a professor, a clergyman, and 
a philosophical author, Yarious innovations against the false theol- 
ogy and philosophy of the day had, indeed, already proceeded from 
his powerful pen. At the end of that time an event occurred, which 
was destined to eliminate all his capabilities of energy and firmness, 
and to change the destinies of Christian Europe. 

John Tetzel, a Dominican prior, had been, for fifteen years, a 
principal agent in Germany for the sale of indulgences. Gifted with 
a tremendous voice, some eloquence, and a deal of coarse humour, he 
had been unusuallv successful in extracting money from the pockets 



408 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

of all devout and liberal Catholics. His talents, just at this time, 
found an extraordinary field for their exercise ; for the Pope, Leo X., 
was engaged in the enterprise of rebuilding St. Peter's Church on a 
scale of unprecedented magnificence, and the papal treasury was like 
a maelstrom that swallowed all within the sphere of its attractions. 
Few grosser or more profitable impositions have been practised on 
the credulity of mankind than that which declared, without repent- 
ance or reformation, the complete remission of sins for a pecuniary 
compensation. 

In this shameless spii^itual trafiic, besides general contributions, 
every particular sin was regulated by a fixed tariif. Polygamy 
cost six ducats, and murder eight; while perjury and sacrilege came 
as high as nine. One Samson, however, in Switzerland, was more 
reasonable in his scale of prices — charging only one ducat for a parri- 
cide and four livres for an infanticide. Tet2el, in his public descrip- 
tion of the torments of purgatory, and the necessities of the church, 
generally concluded by thrice calling to the people, "Bring your 
money! bring money! bring money!" According to Luther, "he 
uttered this cry with such a dreadful bellowing, that one might have 
thought some wild bull was rushing among the people, and goring 
them with his horns." 

To do the Pope justice, his bull respecting indulgences enforced 
repentance and confession ; but these requisites were declared needless 
by his over-zealous commissaries. It would be impossible to recount 
half the knavish tricks and impositions by which money was extracted 
from the terror and credulity of the people. On one occasion, indeed, 
Tetzel met with a shrewder practiser than himself. A Saxon gen- 
tleman, having bargained for thirty crowns for permission to commit 
an act of violence, took his money's worth upon that functionary 
himself, for whom he lay in wait, and, having beaten him grievously, 
carried off the rich chest of indulgence-money which he had helped 
to fill. On his trial for this audacious act, the indulgence, which 
he exhibited, secured his acquittal. 

Indeed, the whole German public was fast awaking to a sense of 
the imposture ; and even the common people cried out against the 
Pope, who, having the keys of heaven and hell, exercised his power 
of releasing the wretched souls in purgatory so charily and expen- 
sively. The strong sense and ardent piety of Luther were deeply 
moved by the account of Tetzel's successful impudence, and he cried 
with an energy characteristically forcible, "God willing, I will make 




DOCTOR MARTIN LUTHER. 



This wonderful man, who effected such a complete change in the theologicM.''. 
Mffairs of Europe, -was "born at Eisleben, in Sasonj^^ on the 10th of Novembei', 
1-183. His p:irentage was one of obscurity and poverty. Erom a fanatical monlc 
ol' ta-^ zVugustine order, he became one of the most original thinkers and most 
cl'iring mnov.ators whom the world has ever witnessed. He expired at the pjluce 
of his liirth on the 18th of Eebruary, 1546, after along and turbulent life, passed, 
for the mo.'?t part, in continued contests "with the Pope, the Priests, and, accord- 
ing to his own belief with the Enemy of Mankind. 



GEEMANY. 409 

a hole in liis drum !" The opportunity was soon presented. Several 
of the citizens of AYittemburg, in confessing their sins to him, justi- 
fied the continuance of these, on the ground that they had purchased 
indulgences, which they exhibited. He assured them of the ineffi- 
cacy of such instruments, enjoined repentance and reform, and 
refused absolution on any other conditions. He immediately 
preached the same doctrine forcibly from the pulpit. 



CHAPTER ?. 

THE REFORMATION CONTINUED. THE "THESES" OE LTJTHER. 

CONTESTS WITH ROME. THE DIET AT WORMS. 

Events of the highest theological interest succeeded with startling 
rapidity. On the 31st of October, 1517, on a great public occasion, 
the reformer, whose heart was now fully enlisted in the work, affixed 
to the door of the church at Wittemburg ninety -five theses or propo- 
sitions, boldly attacking the efficacy of indulgences, and enforcing 
many strong and natural truths in regard to morality and religion. 
These sound, and at that time novel, theological assertions, spread 
with unexampled rapidity throughout Germany and all Christendom, 
and elicited high compliments from the most learned, pious, and 
eminent persons of the daj^ Even the Pope, Leo X., whose name 
and office were respectfully treated, appears to have felt admiration 
rather than displeasure at the assailant of his emissaries. 

The rage of the priestly and monkish fraternity in general was, 
however, unbounded ; and clamours for the burning of this audacious 
heretic arose on all sides. Tetzel especially raved against him in 
the fiercest manner, and publicly burned the obnoxious theses^ bitterly 
invoking the same fate for their author. His own, however, which 
he had written in opposition, were seized, and publicly destroyed in 
the same way by the enthusiastic students of Wittemburg. Luther, 
with contemptuous coarseness, compared the invectives of his adver- 
sary to the braying of an ass. His friends, however, became alarmed, 
and his chief protector, the duke Frederick of Saxony, was filled 



410 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

with, uneasiness at tlie prospect of provoking tiie papacy. The 
reformer, nevertheless, in the most public manner, maintained with 
great eloquence and learning the truth of his propositions. The 
Emperor Maximilian, perceiving the resolute genius of the enthusi- 
ast, and the weight which he would carry in a contest with the papal 
power, wrote to the elector to "take care of the Monk Luther, for a 
time may come when we shall have need of him." 

The Pope, when urged by those around him to interfere in the 
matter, had coolly answered that it was only a squabble among 
the monks, and that the best way was to take no notice of it. The 
more zealous of his supporters, however, both in Italy and Germany, 
entered the lists with alacrity, and attacked the new doctrines and 
their author with great acerbity. He, on his part, by the publication 
of popular tracts, greatly increased the diffusion of his sentiments. 

Nevertheless, he still continued to hold the papal authority in 
high veneration; and in a touching and eloquent lettter to Leo X., 
while averring the impossibility of retracting his views, placed his 
life and fortunes at the disposal of his spiritual chief. But the 
latter now considered that the spirit of reform which had set half 
Germany in a flame, was too formidable to be passed over in silence. 
An ecclesiastical court was appointed, and the reformer was sum- 
moned to appear before it, at Eonae, in sixty days. At the inter- 
cession of his friends, however, this was not insisted on; and the 
papal legate De Yio, then in Germany, was commissioned to dispose 
of the case. The Pope,: indeed, commanded, in case of obstinacy 
and refusal to retract his errors, that the audacious innovator should 
be seized and despatched to Pome. Strong efforts were also made 
to deprive him of the protection of the elector. Maximilian, from 
political considerations, was already strongly in the papal interest. 

Luther, on his part, was encouraged by the friendship of a new 
and admirable companion, the celebrated Melancthon, who, though 
very young, was already highly distinguished by his talents, learn- 
ing, and piety. The great work of translating the Bible in German, 
which the former had already commenced, was exceedingly furthered 
and encouraged by the classic zeal of his new associate. 

The order for his appearance at Augsburg before the cardinal 
legate soon arrived, and his friends, knowing his bold and uncom- 
promising spirit, looked on him as a man devoted to certain 
destruction. He nevertheless set out immediately, travelling, with 
honourable poverty, on foot. He arrived, after a weary journey, 



GEEMANY. ^n 

and on the llth of October, 1518, presented liimself before the car- 
dinal. The conference commenced with civility, but after several 
interviews, degenerated into a scene of fierce polemical wrangling — 
the cardinal insisting on a full retractation, and Lnther, with eq^ial 
stubbornness and zeal, contending for the truth of his doctrines. 
Feeling, indeed, that he had shown in his style too little deference, 
as a monk, to the head of his church, he did not hesitate to make a 
humble acknowledgment of his supposed error, and begged that 
the questions in issue might be referred to his Holiness in person. 
Soon after, having reason to dread that the emperor would deliver 
him up a prisoner, he secretly quitted Augsburg, and returned to 
Wittemburg. 

The cardinal forthwith demanded of the elector his banishment or 
transmission to Eome ; but the latter, moved by the eloquence and 
magnanimity of his protege, refused compliance. He was neverthe- 
less anxious to be rid of him; and Luther, too proud to accept a 
reluctant protection, was on the eve of departing for France, when 
his patron, trusting yet to bring about an accommodation, desired him 
to remain. The prospect of this, however, seemed hopeless ; and on 
the 28th of November, the Great Eeformer, taking the offensive, 
boldly demanded that the matters in question should be referred to 
a Greneral Council of the church. Since learning the Pope's enmity, 
his respect for that high dignitary had undergone a wonderful dimi- 
nution ; and in his new publication, though still acknowledging the 
papal authority, he boldly averred — "Seeing that the Pope, who is 
Grod's vicar on earth, may, like any oth-er man, fall into error, 
commit sin, and utter falsehood, and that the appeal to a Greneral 
Council is the only safeguard against acts of injustice which it is 
impossible to resist — on these grounds I find myself obliged to 
have recourse to it." 

In a nation naturally enthusiastic, and prone to theological specula- 
tion, this succession of events had awakened the deepest interest 
and excitement; and Germany was fast getting ripe for religious 
reformation. Miltitz, the new legate, who in December, 1518, was 
despatched with conciliatory overtures to the elector, was surprised 
to find the people, in a great majority, throughout his route in Ger- 
many, firm adherents to the Eeformer, and highly distrustful of the 
Papal See. The death of Maximilian in 1519, and the Pope's 
desire for the powerful cooperation of Frederick in the imperial elec- 
tion, induced him to allow some respite to the intractable reformer ; 



412 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

and during the ensuing year, in tlie midst of great discussion and 
excitement, and the active warfare of universities, he desseminated 
his doctrines still more widely. 

On the 28th of June, 1520, Charles V. (Charles I. of Spain), an 
inveterate enemy of religious reform, was elected emperor, and the 
zealous supporters of the papacy clamoured loudly for the death of 
Luther, some averring that it was proper to kill him wherever he 
should be found. On the other hand, many powerful nobles of Ger- 
many, welcoming his doctrines and admiring his spirit, voluntarily 
interposed their protection. He soon made a fierce and able attack 
on the papacy itself, and exposed the corruptions of the Eomish 
system with the highest force and energy. He boldly advocated the 
marriage of priests, the disuse of monasteries, with many other 
reasonable reforms, and called boldly upon the empire to oppose its 
resistance to the time-honoured papal encroachments. This power- 
ful and eloquent appeal, addressed to the German nobility, spread 
with unprecedented rapidity through the country. 

The Pope and cardinals, on their part, declared Luther and all 
his adherents excommunicated at the end of sixty days, except on 
condition of previous submission and recantation. The reformer, 
no longer preserving even the appearance of veneration to the hie- 
rarchy, replied by a bold and warning letter, addressed to the Pope 
on terms of equality; and with it, for his spiritual benefit, despatched 
him a small work upon Christian liberty. He also publicly appealed 
to the states, and, accompanied by the professors and students of 
his university, made a solemn bonfire of the Pope's late bull, as 
well as of the decretals and other documents revered by the Eomish 
church. Melancthon, with great learning, eloquence, and spirit, 
supported these bold and uncompromising measures. 

The Emperor Charles, who was then in full council at Cologne, 
readily conceded to the papal nuncio the privilege of publicly burn- 
ing the heretical works of Luther and his associates throughout the 
empire; but shrank from the responsibility of consigning their 
authors to a similar fate. He referred the matter to the elector of 
Saxony, to whom he in reality owed his crown, and who still 
extended his protection over the proscribed believers. Continually 
urged, however, by the papacy, to take some action, he wrote to 
the elector that he must despatch Luther to answer before a grand 
imperial Diet, which had been summoned to meet at Worms in Jan- 
uary, 1521. The duke was in great perplexity, but Luther avowed 



GERMANY. 4^3 

his firm intention of obeying the citation, and appearing before the 
Diet at whatever personal risk. 

The excommunication of Eome had now been launched, and the 
nuncio Alexander, before that august body, was already calling, with 
great vehemence and eloquence, for the unconditional punishment 
of the obstinate recasant. He declared the errors and heresies of 
Luther were sufficiently gross and numerous to warrant the burning 
of an hundred thousand heretics. So great was the effect of his 
impetuous eloquence, that a majority of the Diet would willingly 
have sacrificed Luther; but several of the most powerful magnates, 
while not defending him, complained bitterly of the corruptions and 
extortions of the church. A list of grievances, to the number of an 
hundred and one, was drawn up, and laid before the emperor. 

So great had the excitement become, that Charles perceived that 
nothing short of the appearance of Luther could bring matters to 
any settlement ; and accordingly sent him a summons to appear 
before the Diet, with a safe-conduct, ensuring his protection. The 
alleged culprit, who was almost adored throughout Germany, made 
a kind of triumphal procession to the place of his trial. In vain 
did the people call on him to remember the fate of John Huss, who, 
despite the safe-conduct of the Emperor Sigismund, had been burned 
by the Council of Constance. The portrait of the martyred Savona- 
rola, which was significantly exhibited to him by a monk, had no 
greater effect. As he approached the city, a messenger was des- 
patched by a confidant of the elector to dissuade him from entering 
its dangerous precincts. The undaunted reformer, whose mind was 
now fully made up for triumph or martyrdom, only answered, "Tell 
your master, that though there should be as many devils at Worms 
as there are tiles on the roofs, I would enter it!" 

His appearance, on the 16th of April, produced the highest 
excitement and curiosity. The Eomish advisers of Charles (who 
was in great perplexity, and who had even tried to deter him from 
entering) proposed to cut the Gordian knot by following the example 
of Sigismund, and consigning the audacious heretic to the flames. 
The emperor, however, resolved to adhere to his safe-conduct, and 
Luther on the following day made his appearance before the Diet, 
composed of many of the most renowned princes, nobles, and eccle- 
siastics of Germany and Europe. The emperor presided, and the 
Augustine monk who had created such an unparalleled disturbance 
amid these powers and dignitaries, was asked if he acknowledged 



4-14 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

tlie voluminous writings before tlae assembly as bis own. He did ; 
and to tbe question wbether he intended to retract, desired a day's 
delay. It was granted, and on tbe following day be delivered a 
most eloquent, modest, and toucbing reply, urging tbe trutb of bis 
doctrines, and refusing to recant; yet admitting tbat be migbt bave 
been too barsb and zealous in bis personal strictures. To an omin- 
ous tbreat from tbe cbancellor, be only replied, "May God be my 
belper! for I can retract notbing." Tbe emperor and all present 
were moved to admiration by bis undaunted bearing. 

Frederick, proud of bis protege, now resolved to protect him 
more openly ; and for several days tbe most learned and influential 
persons attendant on the Diet strove to induce him to retract or to 
make some submission to tbe papal authority. All was in vain; 
and tbe emperor, eager to annul tbe effect of bis safe-conduct, com- 
manded him to quit the city. An imperial edict, denouncing tbe 
severest punishment against him, was presently issued. . This instru- 
ment averred, among other charges, " The Augustine monk, Martin 
Luther, regardless of our exhortations, has madly attacked the Holy 
Church, and attempted to destroy it by writings full of blasphemy. 
* * * * This being, who is no man, but 

Satan himself, under the semblance of a man in a monk's hood, has 
collected, in one offensive mass, all the worst heresies of former ages, 
adding his own to tbe number. — We bave therefore dismissed from 
our presence this Luther, whom all reasonable men count a madman, 
or possessed by the devil ; and it is our intention that so soon as 
the term of bis safe-conduct is expired, effectual measures be forth- 
with taken to put a stop to his fury." 

His immediate arrest was enjoined, at the expiration of this pro- 
tection, and it is said that Charles always regretted that be had not 
violated it while he bad tbe opportunity, and consigned Liitber to 
the stake at tbe assembly of Worms. 

The object of all this fury was quietly journeying back to Wit- 
temburg, when, in a narrow defile, he was seized by five horsemen, 
and carried forcibly away to the solitary castle of Wartburg. A 
strong and friendly hand had been interposed to save him from 
destruction. Tbe elector Frederick had taken this singular means 
of preserving him from tbe imperial power, as well as from his own 
perilous enthusiasm. But throughout Grermany, the popular grief 
was at first extreme; for it was supposed tbat he had been spirited 
away by his enemies. 



GEEMANY. 415 



CHAPTER ?I 



SPEEAD OE THE REEORM ATIO N, THE BIBLE. THE 

PEASANT-WAR. PERSECUTIONS. 

In tliis lonely and secure retreat, the too daring reformer was 
compelled to pass a considererable time. "Happy and safe in his 
dungeon, he could return to his flute, sing his German psalms, trans- 
late his Bible, and thunder away at the Pope and the devil quite at 
his ease." He busied himself in study and in theological writing 
and correspondence. He was, however, as he averred, often griev- 
ously disturbed in this avocation by the personal presence of his old 
adversarj^ the devil, who carried his annoyance so far as to provoke 
the reformer on one occasion to fling his inkstand at the head of his 
infernal persecutor. The mark which it made upon the wall is still 
reverentially shown at the castle of Wartburg. 

He was, however, greatly annoyed by the excesses and impru- 
dences which characterized the early dissemination of the reformed 
opinions; and especially at the extrava.gant doctrines which were 
now starting up like mushrooms in Grermany and elsewhere. Early 
in 1522, without permission of the elector, he quitted his retreat, and 
returned to Wittemburg — assigning to his patron, among other 
weighty reasons, the following: "Satan has entered my sheep-fold, 
and committed ravages which I can only repair by my own presence 
and lively word." 

He was engaged in publishing his famous translation of the Bible, 
when its circulation was prohibited by a great number of princes 
and bishops. Every effort was made to suppress it; yet, despite of 
their exertions, this vigorous and admirable translation met with the 
most encouraging success, gave a fresh impetus to the Reformation, 
and produced the most favourable effect on the moral and social 
condition of all parts of Germany in which it was allowed to circu- 
late. Luther readily took up the gauntlet, and, without respect to 
persons, attacked in vehement language the suppressors of the scrip- 
tures. Reading accurately the signs of the times, he warned them 
of impending danger, and declared that he saw the sword of civil 
war suspended over Germany. In the following year, he answered 



416 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the famous joamplilet of Henry VIII. of England, with a force and 
scurrility which threw that of his royal antagonist quite in the shade. 
The abusive epithets of Henry were retorted by rejoinders in a sim- 
ilar strain, aptly describing the English monarch as "a hog of hell," 
and using many other choice specimens of vituperation. 

In the midst of all the labours of theological disputation, and the 
numerous cares of his own congregation, the reformer, with the aid 
of his associates, laid the foundations of a new church — that wide- 
spread system called after the name of its founder — the Lutheran. 
Its doctrines and ecclesiastical government began to assume a settled 
form. The mass was performed in German instead of Latin, as here- 
tofore — and the common people were thus enabled to accompany 
the forms of worship with feeling and understanding. Though 
occupying no fixed rank in the new religious establishment, he 
maintained, by the authority of his name and character, a kind of 
supremacy over the whole body of the reformed believers, and even 
employed the terrors of excommunication upon its refractory mem- 
bers. The most onerous and perplexing charge which fell into his 
hands Avas the care and support of numerous nuns, who, escaping 
from their convents, took refuge with the leader of the reformation ; 
and his simplicity and good-nature were occasionally imposed upon 
by guests of a more questionable character. 

His predictions of a civil struggle were soon awfully verified by 
the "war of the peasants," which broke out in 1524, in many parts 
of Grermany, and was characterized by frightful excesses. The til- 
lers of the soil, complaining justly both of their temporal and eccle- 
siastical bondage and oppression, rose in great numbers, against their 
feudal superiors. Luther, by a most admirable appeal, addressed both 
to the peasants and their lords, in vain endeavoured to allay the 
conflagration. A civil war, almost of extermination, ensued. In 
Franconia alone, nearly three hundred castles and monasteries were 
laid in niins. In Alsace, the duke Antony of Lorraine put to death 
more than thirty thousand of the insurgents. The nobles finally 
succeeded in suppressing the revolt — a triumph which was stained 
by atrocious cruelties. 

Great dissensions now occurred among the reformers themselves ; 
and a fierce theological controversy was waged between Wittemburg 
and the Swiss and Ehenish ecclesiastics, headed by Zwingle, Bucer, 
and other distinguished seceders from the church. The grief and 
perplexity of Luther were extreme ; but he found some consolation 





Austrian Peasar. t. 



German Peasant,, 

OF THE SEVENTEEN!' H CE"NT"CTRY 




Isabel, of Jjavariu, 

■^•IFK OF OHA.ULES VI. OF FliANCJi 



Austrian Lady of Rank 



GEEMAN Y. 



417 



ill a liappy and well-assorted marriage. In August, 1526, he espoused 
Catharine Von Bora, an escaped nun, of beautiful person and excel- 
lent disposition. This act elicited a fresh outcry from the Catholic 
world, which insisted that the " Anti-christ " (who, it had long been 
prophecied, should be born of a monk and a nun) would be the 
legitimate offspring of this sacrilegious union ; but Erasmus, though 
now a formidable opponent of Luther, sneeringly reminded them 
that, if such was the fact, there were many thousands of Anti-christs 
already in the world. The fierce and excitable champion of the 
Eeformation proved, indeed, a most affectionate and exemplary 
husband and father. 

The emperor, though still exceedingly anxious to punish the 
audacious heretic, and to suppress his doctrines, saw plainly the 
impossibility of effecting his purpose, on account of the protection 
afforded by the elector, and the strong popular feeling in favour of 
the new religion. His contests with Francis I., and the necessity 
of repelling the Turkish invasions from Hungary and the eastern 
bounds of the empire, also greatly engrossed his attention, and perhaps 
employed the means which might otherwise have been used to crush 
the reformers of Wittemburg. Nevertheless, in the Low Countries, 
which were under his immediate control, persecution had already 
commenced; and on the 1st of July, 1523, Esch and Voes, two young 
Augustines of the reformed opinions, suffered at the stake in Brussels 
— being the first of that vast "army of martyrs" who were destined 
to lay down their lives in furtherance of the Great Reformation. 
Luther commemorated the fate and the influence of these youthful 
sufferers in one of his noblest hymns, which, from the lips of thou- 
sands, long echoed through the heart of Germany. 

"Flung to the heedless winds, 

Or on the waters cast, 
Their ashes shall be watched, 

And gathered at the last; 
And from that scattered dust 

Around us and abroad 
Shall spring a plenteous seed 

Of witnesses for God." 

A most fierce and violent persecution, under the auspices of the 
Catholic League, soon ensued throughout a great portion of Europe, 
In many parts of Germany, however, under the protection of pow- 
erful princes and nobles, the advocates of the new faith continued 

27 



418 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

boldly to preacli and propagate their doctrines; and tlie emperor, 
though at mortal enmity with the whole system, was yet compelled 
by motives of policy to admit a toleration which it would have been 
out of his power to abrogate entirely. Luther, amid a thousand scenes 
of embarrassment, peril, and mental distress, continued during his 
whole life to labour diligently both for the improvement and prop- 
asration of the belief which owned him for its founder. In his latter 
days, from infirmity and care, he became weary of life, and regretted 
deeply that, being no longer able to serve the church in his life, his 
death was not destined to afford an example of useful and famous 
martyrdom. He died on the 18th ot February, 1546, at Eisleben, 
where he was born, expressing, in his last words, a firm reliance on 
the faith ' which he had so long and earnestly professed. 

In estimating the character of this extraordinary man, great 
allowance must be made for the ignorance and uncertainty of the 
age, for the infinite obstacles with which he was forced to contend, 
and especially for the physical ardency of his nature, excited and 
shattered by the most severe mental conflicts and unavailing self- 
inflicted severities. His morality, piety, self-sacrifice, and conscien- 
tious industry, were almost beyond any thing recorded in history. 
His heart was in general overflowing with love for all created things. 
Yet the vehemence of his temper and his combative propensity, 
aroused by furious opposition, lent a fierceness and personality to 
his polemical writings, which sometimes he had occasion to regret. 

Aware of this constitutional impetuosity, he writes to a friend, 
"My style, rude and unskilful, vomits forth a deluge, a chaos of 
words, boisterous and impetuous as a wrestler contending with a 
thousand successive monsters. * * * I feel, 

however, some comfort from the consideration that our common 
Father hath need, in this immense family, of each servant; of the 
hard against the hard, the rough against the rough, to be used as a 
sharp wedge against hard knots. To clear the air and fertilize the 
soil, the rain which falls and the dew which sinks is not enough — 
the thunder-storm is still required." 

Sometimes, like the prophet Jonah, he deems that he '^does well 
to be angry."' — "Thou canst not think," he writes to a third," how 
I love to see my adversaries daily rising up more against me. I am 
never haughtier or bolder than when I hear that I have ofiended 
them. Doctors, bishops, princes — what are they to me ? * * 
I have such a contempt for these Satans, that if I were not retained 



G E E M A N Y . 



419 



here, I would straight to Eome in mj hate of the devil and all these 
furies. But I must have patience with the Pope, with my disciples, 
with Catharine Von Bora, with every one." 

His imaginative and enthusiastic mind was thoroughly imbued with 
superstition; and he traced the direct agency of the Lord, or the 
intrusive presence of Satan, in almost every striking event of life. 
He repeatedly described the personal annoyance and temptation 
which he had experienced from this infernal adversary; and was 
supplied with a vast stock of anecdotes, frequently drawn from his 
own observation, founded on the malicious interference of evil spirits. 
On one occasion, he even urged upon the prince of Anhalt the pro- 
priety of throwing into the river Moldau an unfortunate child, whose 
fantastic habits and demeanour had shocked the inhabitants of Des- 
sau. It did nothing but eat, and would consume as much food as 
any four labouring men ; it laughed at any misfortune in the house, 
but went weeping and moping when all was well; proof positive, 
he considered, that it was a mere lump of flesh animated by the 
devil for malicious purposes. 



CHAPTER YII. 

RELIGIOUS DISPUTES. THE THIRTY TEARS' WAR. 

Under the Emperor Charles V. (more especially mentioned in the 
account of Spain) the imperial power certainly had attained its 
height. The Germanic empire, Austria, Spain, Naples, Sicily, Bur- 
gundy, and immense possessions in the new world, had all become 
united under the house of Hapsburg. Bohemia and Hungary were 
almost added to the list. Nothing prevented yet further accessions 
to this vast accumulation of power and territory except the power- 
ful opposition of Francis I., and the domestic resistance among the 
states, excited by Luther and the Eeformation. 

In 1530, the Protestant party, now formidable in power and num- 
bers, had delivered to the emperor, in the diet at Augsburg, the 
celebrated Confession of Faith which takes its name from that city. 
The princes of the reformed party, by a solemn league at Smalkalde, 



420 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

gained sufficient political importance to ensure for some time tolera- 
tion in their respective dominions. At the death of Lnther and that 
of Francis I. (which occurred nearly at the same time) the emperor 
entered into a solemn league with the Pope, Paul III., for the extir- 
pation of heresy ; and immediately took up arms against the reformed 
states of Germany. This war, conducted on the part of the states 
by the elector of Saxony, the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, and other 
eminent Protestants, opened very unfavourably for the reformers. 
Their forces were defeated, the elector was captured and threatened 
with instant execution, and the fiery landgrave was compelled to 
demand pardon of the emperor on his knees. Nevertheless, the 
resistance of the combined districts was so stubborn and prolonged, 
that Charles, in 1555, was compelled to liberate the imprisoned 
princes, and to conclude a formal treaty of peace, ensuring toleration 
to the reformed religion. 

In the same year, wearied out with contests and the cares of 
empire, he made that memorable resignation of his dominions which 
has furnished such a fruitful theme for moralists and philosophers. 
(See Spain, page 370.) In the reign of his brother, Ferdinand I., 
who succeeded him in the empire, a general assembly of the Protest- 
ants was held at Naumburg, and all the changes which had been 
made in the "Confession of Augsburg," in order to approximate it 
to the systeni of Calvin, were corrected. 

This emperor, after a prudent and judicious reign, expired in 
1564. His son, Maximilian, evinced equal judgment and moderation. 
Toleration was maintained, and in 1568 the emperor accorded to 
the Austrian Protestants the full exercise of their religion. At his 
death, in 1576, the succession devolved upon his son Rudolf II., who 
is described as having been "a great distiller, a good astronomer, a 
very tolerable esquire, but a very bad emperor." 

His reign was troubled by fierce contests between the rival Pro- 
testant sects of Augsburg and Geneva, and by the ambition of his 
brother Matthias, who compelled him to abdicate the crowns of Bohe- 
mia and Hungary. He died in 1612, and Matthias, who succeeded 
him, in 1619. Ferdinand II., grandson of Ferdinand I., who (on the 
refusal of the duke of Bavaria) was next selected to fill the throne, 
had been educated in Spain, and was embued with sentiments of the 
most absolute despotism and the most intolerant bigotry. That great 
contest between the Catholics and Protestants, called from its duration 
the Thirty Years' War, broke out immediately on his accession. 



GEEMANY. 



421 



In this long and disastrous contest, the German, Danish, Swedish, 
and French nations were successively involved. Bohemia, which 
first set the example of resistance to the imperial authority, was 
quickly subdued; and Christian of Brunswick and Count Mansfield, 
the Protestant leaders in the north of Grermany, were completely 
defeated by the celebrated Tilly. The successes of the latter were 
disgraced by the most atrocious outrages and oppression in the 
unfortunate states which had resisted. Christian IV., king of Den- 
mark, who next was placed at the head of the confederacy, though 
distinguished by many characteristics of the ancient northern heroes, 
was unable to withstand the greatly superior forces of the empire. 
Being defeated by Tilly, in 1626, at the battle of Lutter, he was 
compelled to make peace, with a loss of a portion of his dominions. 
Germany was again ravaged by the cruel and victorious imperialists. 

The cause of the Protestants appeared desperate, when, in 1630, 
the famous Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed at Usedom, 
and by his skill and the valour of his forces, completely turned the 
tide of warfare. Aided by several powerful German princes, and 
encouraged by foreign alliances, he commenced a series of brilliant 
and successful campaigns. At Leipsic, with forty thousand men, he 
defeated an equal number under Tilly, with a loss of twelve thousand 
in killed, wounded, and prisoners. He was soon master of the whole 
country, from the Elbe to the Ehine, and erected a pyramid on the 
banks of the latter, that posterity might know how far his victorious 
arms had been carried. 

The imperial general soon sustained another overwhelming defeat, 
and lost his own life in the action. Wallenstein, duke of Friedland, 
who was now in command of the Austrian forces, met with better 
success ; and succeeded in repulsing a furious attack which the king 
of Sweden, with sixty thousand men, made upon his intrenchments. 
The latter, soon afterwards, fell in the sanguinary battle of Lutzen, 
where, however, his troops again defeated the imperial army, with a 
loss of six thousand men. 

The emperor still persisted in carrying on the war, and Germany 
for a long time continued to be ravaged by hostile armies. The 
renowned Wallenstein, whose ambition had occasioned deep jealousy 
to the court of Vienna, perished by the hand of an assassin despatched 
for his arrest. 

Soon after, the emperor himself expired, after a reign of eighteen 
years, mostly disastrous to his subjects and to the power of the 



422 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY, 

empire. His son Ferdinand III., who received the crown, succeeded 
in tranquillizing the interior of Germany, but for many years was 
compelled to wage destructive wars with the foreign confederates. 
The victories of the French, under Conde and Turenne, and those 
of the Swedes, under Banier, Wrangel, and Torstenston, finally com- 
pelled the emperor to negotiate for peace. By the treaty of West- 
phalia, in 1648, Sweden and France, especially the latter, gained 
possession of districts of Germany; the successful German princes 
also obtained advantages ; and freedom in the exercise of their reli- 
gion was fully guarantied to the Protestants. A. bull of the Pope and 
a remonstrance of the king of Spain, called forth by this settlement, 
were alike disregarded. 

For nearly a century longer, the princes of the Austrian house 
of Hapsburg continued to hold the throne of the empire and of their 
hereditary dominions — the contests concerning the Spanish succes- 
sion, and the rise of the independent kingdom of Prussia, being 
among the most prominent events in the imperial history. The 
latter country, now composed of more than fifty provinces of ancient 
Germany,, was founded upon the duchy of that name, and its first 
sovereign was the duke Frederick III., who having largely increased 
his hereditary possessions, assumed the crown in 1701, as Frederick 
I., of the new kingdom of Prussia. At his death, in 1713, his son, 
Frederick William I., a severe, prejudiced, and disagreeable person, 
succeeded him. The amusements of this refined sovereign consisted 
in kicking, cuffing, and otherwise maltreating all who fell under 
his displeasure, and in exercising the most odious oppression toward 
the members of his own family. By such harsh and brutal treat- 
ment, the character of his son Frederick was, no doubt, materially 
injured. The kingdom, however, enjoyed considerable prosperity 
during his reign, and at his death in 1740 he bequeathed to his son, 
Frederick II., (the Great) a considerable treasure and a tolerably 
effective army. 

In the same year, by the death of the emperor, Charles VI., the 
last male descendant of the house of Hapsburg, his daughter Maria 
Theresa succeeded to his hereditary dominions. After some contests 
with the elector of Bavaria, who, under the title of the emperor 
Charles YII., disputed her pretensions, she gained the advantage; 
and on his death her husband, Francis I., duke of Lorraine, was in 
1745 elected to the imperial dignity. 

The ambition of Frederick, seconded by his almost unrivalled 




FREDERICK THE GREAT, KINO OF PRUSSIA 



Taib celebrated and eccectric soveTeigr. avhs Voi'l on tae 24th d;iy ol' January, 
1712. His youth was rendered un'imi'Y'y, and uis diti:'Osition deeply injured by 
the harshness and cruelty of his father, Frederick Wilnam I., an odious and 
vulgar tyrant. After his accession to the tin-one, vn 1740, his an-;bition involved 
Prussia in a series of devastating wars, in vrhich, at the expense of the lives and 
happiness of his people, he displayed the highest talents as a military com- 
mander. He died on the 17th of Augu.^t, 1786 ; his death being hastened by thn 
greatest ■^ill'ulness and indiscretion m hi,^ diet 



GEEMANY. 



423 



talents for warfare, soon involved the greater part of Europe in 
fierce and protracted hostilities. Taking advantage of the unpro- 
tected situation of the empress-queen, he gained possession of the 
important province of Silesia. Strengthened by the devoted attach- 
ment of her Hungarian subjects, and by the powerful alliance of 
France and Eussia, Maria Theresa made a determined effort to hold 
the contested district. Frederick, encouraged by the promise of 
assistance from England, resolved on a stubborn resistance; and in 
1756 commenced a brilliant and successful campaign against the 
imperial forces in Saxony. The foreign confederates, in overwhelm- 
ing force, marched to the assistance of their Austrian ally; but the 
Prussian monarch, by Tinparalleled exertions, raised fresh armies, 
marched into Bohemia, and defeated an hundred thousand Austrians 
in a pitched battle near the city of Prague. Each of the hostile 
forces sustained a loss of nearly twenty thousand men. The fugi- 
tive army took refuge in Prague, which was immediately besieged 
by the victor. Marshal Daun, the Austrian commander, with sixty 
thousand men, hastened to its relief In the battle of Kolin, June 
18th, 1757, the Prussian army lost eight thousand men, and was 
compelled to retreat. 

The arrival of the Eussian forces seemed to render the condition 
of Frederick almost desperate ; yet by a series of rapid and brilliant 
manoeuvres, he was victorious on all sides. The French, who had 
also entered Germany, sustained a memorable defeat at Eosbach. 
At Leuthen, in December, the Austrian army, under Daun, met with 
another startling defeat from the Prussians, under Frederick, whose 
numbers were but little more than half those of the enemy. The 
Swedes, who had joined the hostile alliance, were likewise repelled. 

This memorable contest, called from its duration "The Seven 
Years' "War," was protracted, in a most obstinate manner, until the 
commencement of the year 1763. The death of the empress of 
Eussia, and the entirely different policy of her successor, Peter TIL, 
had rid Frederick of one of his most formidable enemies, and secured 
him a powerful auxiliary. By the treaty of Hubertsburg, peace 
was restored to the numerous conflicting parties, complete restitution 
being made of all prisoners and conquests. The Prussian monarch 
retained Silesia, for which half a million of lives had been sacrificed 
in vain. 

This disastrous Septennial Warfare, which from necessity has been 
very briefly described, was doubtless, excepting the wars of Napo- 



424 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Icon, the most sanguinary which Europe has ever witnessed. "In 
this long and unequal conflict," says an able writer, "Prussia had 
resisted the three great military powers of Europe — France, Austria 
and Eussia — reinforced by the troops of the Circles, of Saxony, and 
of Sweden. The success of this seemingly impracticable undertaking, 
in which, had Frederick failed, his name would have been numbered 
with the wildest names in Romance, was facilitated by the following 
circumstances: the timid and interested caution of the Austrian 
generals, who, while they spared their own troops, disgusted their 
allies by continually exposing them to enterprises of difl&culty and 
posts of danger; the seasonable demise of the Empress Elizabeth, 
which converted Russia from an implacable enemy into a useful 
auxiliary; the patriotic zeal of the Prussian subjects, and the disci- 
plined bravery of the Prussian troops ; above all, the king's incom- 
parable conduct and invincible courage, his cool combination and 
ardent execution,"* 

Joseph II., in 1765, succeeded his father, Francis I., in the impe- 
rial dignity. His reign was distinguished by bold attempts at reform 
and improvement. Unfortunately his ardour outstripped the intel- 
ligence and the wishes of his subjects. Religious toleration and 
political reform were unpopular with a priest-ridden and prejudiced 
people; the work of his life perished with him; and Austria has 
since been under the sway of princes sufficiently bigoted and far 
enough behind the spirit of the age to satisfy the most obstinate 
opponent of liberty and progress. 

The wonderful events which succeeded the French Revolution, 
and which for so many years, convulsed all Central Europe, have 
been elsewhere alluded to. Germany, whose political constitution 
has been so repeatedly altered, and which at times has seemed upon 
the eve of great political reform, appears at present nearly as far 
from real freedom and unity of sentiment as ever. Though doubt- 
less the great mass of the population in nearly all the German states 
are sincerely desirous of liberty and self-government, it may be 
doubted whether the predominant influence of her powerful neigh- 
bours, inclined to despotism, will not for a long time suppress any 
progressive movement which may emanate from the people, whether 
in the shape of reform or revolution. 

* Gillies's Frederick 11. 



RUSSIA. 



EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. — THE TARTARS. — ASCENDANCY 
OF THE MUSCOVITE DYNASTY. ITAN THE GREAT 

The early history of those numerous tribes and nations of wliic]i 
the vast Eussian empire is composed, is almost entirely lost in the 
mists of antiquity and barbarism. A great portion of its immense 
domains, especially in the neighbourhood of Asia, is still inhabited 
by a rude and primitive people, not much advanced beyond their 
ancestors, the ancient Scythians and Sarmatians. The Slavi, the 
most prominent of these migratory and warlike races, came originally 
from the East, and by degrees overran a great part of Asia and 
Eastern Europe. Their descendants constitute at this time a consid- 
erable portion of the population of the globe, being widely distrib- 
uted over a space of nearly half its longitude. The Finns, the 
Tartars, and the Mongols also form a considerable part of the 
component elements of Russian population. 

The chief capital of the Slavic race, in European Russia, was 
Novgorod — a city, it is said, of such power and resources as to give 
rise to the popular Russian proverb — "Who shall dare to oppose God 
and Novgorod the Great!" Its commerce is said to have extended 
to Constantinople, Persia, and even India. Little authentic is known 
of its history until the latter part of the ninth century. This pow- 
erful state and that of Kief, founded by the same people, were much 
disturbed by civil contentions; and certain parties solicited the 
interference of the warlike nations of the Scandinavian peninsula. 
Accordingly, in the year 862, Rurik, a powerful chief of the Russ 
family, entered the country with a large force, gained possession of 
Novgorod, and founded an absolute principality' — 'the grand duchy 
of Great Russia (so called from the name of his family). 



426 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Under Oleg, wlio succeeded liira, the city of Kief became a capital 
of importance, and large territories, witli great numbers of subjects, 
were added to tlie new empire. With eighty thousand of his 
barbaric followers, he made a successful expedition to Byzantium 
(Constantinople), and extorted severe terms from the Emperor Leo, 
By his military and political talents, he continued to extend his 
dominions, and laid the foundation of the Russian empire. An 
immense horde of those warlike depredators, which in 941, under 
Igor, his successor, again invaded the Greek empire, was, however, 
completely repulsed, and two-thirds of the number perished in the 
expedition. 

Vladimir, a descendant of Rurik, in the year 988 married the 
Princess Anne, a daughter of the Grecian emperor, and embraced 
the Christian faith. His influence and his absolute authority enabled 
him to extend the new religion widely among his subjects — whole 
districts, at his command, undergoing the rite of baptism by a simul- 
taneous movement. The Greek church thus became, what it has 
ever since remained, the national religious establishment of Russia; 
and soon gained strength to compete with its powerful rival, the 
Romish Catholicism, which might otherwise have held a monopoly 
of European Christianity. 

Successive; civil wars, and divisions and reunions of the empire, 
for more than two centuries, present no details of particular interest. 
In the early part of the thirteenth century, the ferocious Mongols, 
under Zinghis Khan and his descendants, had ravaged the greater 
part of Asia, and overthrown the most ancient and powerful king- 
doms of that continent. Southern Russia had already been exposed 
to some alarming invasions, and the weakness and dissensions of 
her numerous princes prevented any united movement to resist this 
ferocious enemy. In the year 1237, Baty, the grandson of Zinghis, 
appeared with an immense force on the frontiers. After ravaging 
Bulgaria, he penetrated at once into the heart of Russia, which soon 
underwent all the terrible evils which these barbarous hordes were 
accustomed to inflict. Wherever they marched, an unpeopled desert 
was left behind them. Nearly all the country, except Novgorod, 
was soon reduced to subjection. The conquerors, indeed, left to the 
native grand-dukes a show of authority, though enforcing vassalage 
and tribute. They, nevertheless, took entire possession of the king- 
doms of Kasan and Astrachan, at that time comprised under the 
name of Kaptshak. 



EUSSIA. 



427 



Ivan I., prince of Moscow, who, early in the fourteenth century, 
came to the throne of that principahty, succeeding in becoming the 
lieutenant and chief representative of the Tartar sovereign, Usbek 
Khan, and, in collecting the customary taxes in the name of the 
latter, was enabled greatly to extend his own empire. By the 
authority of the khan he exacted tribute and submission of the 
Russians, and by the gold of the Russians secured the countenance 
of the khan. In the latter part of the same century, a general and 
united effort was made to free the country from its Tartar oppress- 
ors. The heroic Dmitry of Moscow, the chief prince of the Rus- 
sians, with an army of two hundred thousand men, encountered the 
invading enemy, of far greater force, on the banks of the river Don, 
and defeated them with immense slaughter. The victors were, 
however, soon defeated in their turn. Moscow was laid in ashes, and 
Dmitry was again forced to submit implicitly to the will of the khan. 

In 1398 the ferocious Tamerlane, with an army of four hundred 
thousand men, entered Russia, laying the country waste wherever 
he went. The more inviting conquest of India, however, ere long, 
turned his arms in another direction. The Muscovite dynasty, 
founded by Ivan, had gradually acquired the highest ascendancy in 
Russia. Ivan III. (the Great), his descendant, who in 1462, at the 
age of twenty-two, came to the throne, pushed his ambitious plans 
farther than any of his predecessors. By his subtle policy, he dis- 
armed the jealousy of his feudal superiors, the Tartar sovereigns, 
and at the same time evaded payment of the customary tribute. As 
soon as he felt strong enough, he seized upon Kasan, in spite of the 
opposition of the khan; and was soon able to effect the subjugation 
of Novgorod and other refractory provinces. He boldly assumed 
absolute authority over the conquered districts. 

A fresh and formidable invasion of the Tartars was disconcerted 
by the conduct and valour of his chiefs, who redeemed the errors 
of their pusillanimous sovereign. The complete expulsion of these 
foreign intruders, and future freedom from their exactions, was the 
result. Ivan was thus enabled completely to overawe a number of 
the remaining Russian principalities, and to reduce them to implicit 
submission. All Russia was ere long brought under his sway, and 
he assumed the title of Gzar or emperor — a term signifying, in the 
Persian language, supreme authority. 

A marriage with the Greek Princess Sophia, and a close alliance, 
both social and political, with Byzantium, strengthened his power 



428 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

yet farther. In the midst of these wonderful successes, he paid con- 
stant attention to the improvement of the empire and the introduc- 
tion of southern art and refinement into his vast but uncivilized 
domains. Moscow began to assume a respectable rank among the 
European capitals. "The palace of the Kremlin, with its fortresses 
and church, arose in all the grandeur of Eastern luxury and barbaric 
strength: miners and engineers, architects, founders, and minters, 
were invited from Germany and Italy into those icy regions which 
they hitherto trembled to penetrate, but where their skill and their 
labours were now liberally rewarded: the mines of Petchora were 
pierced ; and the Russians, for the first time, received a coinage in 
silver and copper, designed and executed in their own capital. 
These dazzling events, to which were added pageants, and proces- 
sions, and public entertainments on the 'most gorgeous and lavish 
scale, gave a new direction to the passions of the people. The arts 
and sciences had taken root among them, and Russia was no longer 
content to enjoy the unsocial advantages of her ancient habits."* 

The dangerous power of the boyars or nobles, who had heretofore 
exercised a subordinate despotism, was suppressed by the czar in 
the severest manner, and their privileges were limited and defined. 
The laws, still rude and imperfect, were much improved, both in 
their tenour and administration. The military resources of the 
country were developed and exercised ; and Russia began to figure 
as a prominent nation in the European world. Her power had been 
concentrated, and four millions of subjects had been added to her 
sway by the policy of the emperor and the valour of his generals. 
He died in 1505, after a reign of forty-three years, marked by energy, 
craft, and astonishing political success. 

* Bell's History of Russia. 



RUSSIA, 



429 



IVAN THE TERRIBLE. FOREIGN WARS. ACCESSION OP THE 

HOUSE OP ROMANOFP. 

Yassali Ivanovitch, the son of Ivan, succeeded, during a reign 
of twenty-eight years, in enlarging yet farther the bounds and con- 
sohdating the strength of the Russian empire. After his death, and 
during the minority of his infant son, Ivan IV., the regency was 
contested between several powerful families, to the great injury of 
the country. The prince, from his naturally vindictive disposition, 
and the evil counsel of those around him, displayed the most preco- 
cious cruelty and depravity. Torturing animals and insulting his 
inferiors were his principal amusements; and at the age of only 
thirteen, he gave proof of his ferocious disposition by causing Schu- 
isky, one of the most powerful nobles of his court, to be worried 
and devoured by dogs. His evil counsellors applauded every fresh 
atrocity, and whoever fell under his vengeance or suspicion was 
sacrificed on the spot. "This terrible system continued for three 
years. The pupilage of the prince was an uninterrupted scene of 
horror ; and he was crowned czar of all the Russias in his eighteenth 
year, after a minority of blood." 

The influence of better advisers and of his beautiful wife Anasta- 
tia wrought for a time a favourable change ; and for thirteen years 
during which the latter lived, the demoniac ferocity of his disposi- 
tion seemed partially subdued, and he exhibited the qualities of a 
wise and able sovereign. He quelled the refractory Tartar province 
of Kasan, and added Astrachan to the imperial dominions. Siberia, 
a region cold and desolate, but abounding in the richest furs and 
minerals, was explored and added to the empire under his auspices. 
The improvement of laws and the introduction of useful arts also 
eno-ao;ed his strict attention. 

The death of the empress, in 1560, removed the check which had 
hitherto restrained the natural vindictiveness of his disposition. 
His reign, from this time, surpasses in madness and atrocity that of 
any tyrant recorded in history. The cruelties which he exercised 
in suppressing the opposition which his . severity excited, are too 



430 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

numerous and too horrible to be detailed. The ignorant populace, 
accustomed to regard their czar as the representative of God upon 
earth, mostly submitted, with a pious awe to the shocking enormi- 
ties which he committed; and even, with a horrid interest and 
curiosity, flocked eagerly to witness the unheard-of tortures which 
he inflicted on his victims. The Strelitz or select body-guard, first 
enrolled by him, were the principal instruments of his atrocities. 
His daily occupation consisted chiefly in acts of devotion, and in 
witnessing the tortures of the accused. 

Whole towns were at times depopulated by his fury. Suspecting 
the loyalty of Novgorod, he marched to that celebrated city, and 
delivered it to plunder and massacre. Day after day, he witnessed 
the execution of five hundred to a thousand of the citizens by torture 
or fire. He left sixty thousand of them dead in the streets of the 
cit}^, which for a long time presented the appearance of a vast 
cemetery. His unfortunate and superstitious subjects still reposed 
implicit confidence in his impious declaration of supremacy: "I am 
your Grod, as God is mine." Meanwhile, the empire, unprotected by 
arms or policy, suffered great misfortunes from the hostilities of the 
surrounding nations, especially of Poland. 

Fearing the worst, he sought the hand of Elizabeth of England, 
and entreated, at all events, an asylum in case he should be driven 
from his dominions. His crowning crime was the murder of his 
eldest son, whom in a fit of passion he struck to the ground with 
an iron rod, which he usually carried. His own death occurred 
soon after, in 1580. He died overwhelmed with the pangs of con- 
science, after a reign of thirty-four years, leaving behind the name, 
so fearfully earned, of "Ivan the Terrible." 

On the death of Feodor, his son, a weak-minded prince who held 
only nominal power, the line of Eurik came to an end ; and in 1598 
Boris Gudunof, a bold and artful man, of Tartar descent, through the 
influence of the Patriarch of the Greek church, gained possession of 
the throne by election of the nobles. To conciliate the latter, he 
had already procured the enaction of that infamous law by which 
the last vestiges of freedom were taken from the peasants, and their 
serfdom was made inseparable from the soil they tilled. On his 
death by suicide, which soon occurred, the throne was successively 
held by two pretenders, and the Poles gained almost complete 
ascendancy over the affairs of Russia. They seized upon Moscow, 
and Sigismund, their king, confidently anticipated the annexation of 



EUSSIA. 



431 



the vast Eussian empire to his little kingdom. Througli the influ- 
ence of the clergy, however, the intruders, after a most sanguinary 
contest, were expelled from the country ; and the people, by com- 
mon consent, in 1613, placed on the throne Mikhail Komanoff, a 
youth of thirteen, allied to the royal house of Eurik. 

The great council of boyars and citizens, to which he owed his 
elevation, were fully aware of the necessity for some limitation to 
the imperial power; and the youthful czar, accordingly, was com- 
pelled on his accession to take a solemn oath, giving the laws an 
unqualified preference to his own authority. On his election, the 
feuds and contests for the crown were almost instantly quieted, and 
the nation experienced a calm which it had not enjoyed for many 
years. The extravagant loyalty of the Eussians welcomed with 
exultation even this indirect representative of their ancient rulers, 
and he was enabled to administer the government with moderation 
and success. The invasion of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who 
sought to enforce the payment of a loan, soon afterwards ensued. The 
brilliant successes of the Swedish monarch, at first, almost seemed 
to threaten the conquest of Eussia; but in 1617 a treaty was con- 
cluded, by which' the invader compelled her to submit to the cession 
of considerable territory. A treaty on similar disadvantageous terms 
was made with the Poles, who had again invaded the empire. 

National intercourse and the exchange of embassies now began 
to assume a settled form, and the czar was in regular diplomatic 
connection with the courts of England, Denmark^ Holland, and the 
German empire. After a reign of thirty-two years, distinguished 
by the love of peace and moderation, he expired in 1645, leaving 
the throne to his son Alexis, a youth of fifteen. 

The Cossacks of the Ukraine had become involved in a fierce war 
with Poland, and solicited aid of ncAV the czar, offerings on condition 
of assistance, to become his vassals. The emperor, to ascertain the 
will of Providence, ordered a fight between two wild bulls, to one 
of which he gave the name of Eussia, and to the other that of Poland. 
On seeing the latter come off victor, he was desirous of relinquish- 
ing the scheme ; but the remonstrances of the Patriarch prevailed, 
and the Ukraine, by this movement, was finally annexed to the 
Eussian empire. 

Alexis died in the year 1676, after a reign of thirty years, much 
of which was passed in hostility with his neighbours. He had been, 
on the whole, successful in consolidating the empire, and had recov- 



432 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

ered many of tlie provinces wrung from his predecessors. He had 
been twice married, and Feodor, his eldest son, a prince somewhat 
feeble in mind and body, came to the throne. 

By the skill and military genius of the minister Galitzin, an advan- 
tageous truce for twenty years was concluded with the Turks, with 
whom for some time Eussia had been engaged in war. The C2a,r 
Feodor, after a reign of only six years, distinguished rather by hon- 
esty than ability, expired in the year 1682. 



PETER THE GEEAT. PERILS OP HIS YOUTH; HIS EPPORTS POR 

REFORM; HIS CRUELTIES; HIS TRAVELS IN EUROPE, WAR 

WITH CHARLES XII. OP SWEDEN. 

The Emperor Feodor, on his death-bed, had nominated as his suc- 
cessor his half-brother Peter, the son of Alexis by his second 
marriage (into the family of Narishkin) — Ivan, his own brother, 
being exceedingly deficient, both in mental and bodily endowments. 

The Princess Sophia, sister of the deceased emperor, a woman of 
great beauty, courage, and ambition, resolved, in the name of Ivan, 
to gain possession of the throne for herself. The strelitz or body- 
guard, fourteen thousand in number, were easily won over by her 
fascination and liberality. More than sixty of the family of Narish- 
kin were put to death by this licentious soldiery, which for three 
days committed the greatest excesses in the streets of Moscow The 
Czarina Natalia, the widow of Alexis, was compelled to fly for her 
life, carrying with her the youthful Peter, a child nine or ten years 
of age. They were overtaken; and a ruffian had seized the prince 
on the very altar, and was about to sever his head from his body, 
when a fortunate accident drew away the murderers, and Peter the 
Great was preserved to Eussia. 

The entreaties of Ivan, who felt his own incapacity, for the asso- 
ciation of Peter in the empire, could not be resisted; and Sophia 
was compelled to yield. By surrounding the youthful prince with 
sensual and debasing influences, however, she trusted to incapacitate 
him from playing any important part in the government. Fifty 



EUSSIA. 433 

young Eussians, of the most dissolute tastes, were placed about his 
person ; and it was confidently anticipated that his health and intel- 
lect would soon succumb before the degrading habits into which it 
was their business to initiate him. The event did not answer these 
expectations. Instead of sinking to their level, the young prince, 
filled with spirit and ambition, elevated them to his own ; and amid 
all the profligacy into which these ^^amusers^^ led him, he cherished 
schemes of improvement and reform. His tastes were military, and 
by continual drilling he soon made these dissipated youths the 
nucleus of an alert and disciplined soldiery. 

By the aid of a talented Swiss, named Lefort, one of these com- 
panions, he persevered in acquiring, as far as possible, a liberal 
education. Sophia, who hitherto had actually held the government, 
and had even issued coins in her own name, began at length to be 
alarmed at the genius and activity of Peter, who had now attained 
the age of seventeen, and frequent quarrels ensued between them. 
Six hundred of the strelitz were despatched for his assassination; 
but the nobles and the army rallied around him ; the assassins shrunk 
back; and the affair ended in his complete establishment on the 
throne of Russia. Grreat numbers of the strelitz were barbarously 
executed ; the obnoxious ministers were banished ; and Sophia was 
compelled to shave her head, and retire for life to a nunnery. From 
this time, (December 11th, 1689,) Peter held the absolute control of 
the government; though Ivan, who lived till 1696, enjoyed a nom- 
inal association in the imperial title. 

Under the able and enterprising policy of the yo\ithful sovereign, 
the power and resources of Russia were rapidly developed. A stand- 
ing army was speedily organized: Azof, on the sea of that name, 
was taken from the Turks, and the foundation of a naval establish- 
ment on the Euxine was immediately laid. Internal improvements 
were also zealously encouraged. The czar, indeed, still retained 
much of the barbarous ferocity which had characterized his prede- 
cessors, and an insurrection of the strelitz, which occurred in 1697, 
was punished by wholesale executions, conducted in a spirit of the 
most revolting cruelty. 

In the same year he undertook his celebrated journey, traversing 
the more civilized nations of Europe with a view of introducing 
into his own country the arts and improvements which had rendered 
them so prosperous and powerful. He passed through several north- 
ern provinces, through Prussia and Germany, and finally, in a species 
28 



434 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

of incognito^ settled himself in an obscure and miserable lodging at 
the Dutch port of Saardam, Here, under the name of Peter Tim- 
nierman, he devoted himself zealously to acquiring a knowledge 
of the art of ship-building. He hired himself as a common work- 
man, wrought diligently, and lived exclusively on the slender wages 
which he received for his labour. His suite, though compelled to 
a reluctant compliance with this caprice, took care to live, as far as 
possible, in a less diligent and more luxurious manner. 

In England, whither he soon after repaired, he pursued his favour- 
ite object with unabated ardour; and besides perfecting his marine 
acquirements in the public dock-yards, applied himself with great 
diligence to the study of many useful arts and sciences. Thence he 
proceeded to Austria, and was on the point of quitting that country 
for Italy, when a fresh insurrection of the strelitz, instigated by 
Sophia, caused his hasty return to Moscow. On his arrival, he 
found the insurgents already defeated and in prison ; and at once 
proceeded to take a savage vengeance which almost eclipsed the 
insane ferocities of Ivan the Terrible. Two thousand of these unfor- 
tunate wretches were subjected to every variety of torture, under 
the eye of the czar, who with his own hand eagerly assisted in the 
horrible task. All were put to death, and Peter, stimulating him- 
self with; wine, cut off head after head as long as he could wield the 
axe of the executioner. 

Even these horrors could not satisfy the infernal cruelty and vin- 
dictiveness of his disposition. "For five succeeding months, Eussia 
was destined to witness the axe, the gibbet, and the wheel in con- 
stant activity. The whole empire was shaken with apprehension, 
and the name of Peter at last became a word of terror to the popu- 
lation." On one occasion, with his own imperial hand, he struck 
off eighty heads in vicAv of the people. The insurrections produced 
by these outrages were suppressed with fresh energy and fury. The 
entire force of the strelitz was broken up by execution and disband- 
ment. His unfortunate wife Eudokhia was consigned to the cloisters 
for life. 

In strange contrast to these atrocities, followed an enlightened 
and persevering sj^stem of reform and national improvement. Eeli- 
gious freedom, despite the opposition of the priesthood, was estab- 
lished ; the tyrannical usages respecting females were abrogated ; and 
the amusements and refinements of more civilized nations were, 
though rather arbitrarily, introduced among the people. 




BRONZE STATUE OF PETER THE GKEAT AT HT. PETERiSBURGH, 

DF.SIRNED BY FALCONET, AND ERECTED BY CATHARINE IT 

Height of the figure, 11 ieet; of the horse, 17 feet; weight of the group, 30,G3 ; 11-; 
Mounted ou a solid hlock of granite, weighing upwards of 1,000 tons. 



EUSSIA. 



435 



The grand desire of Peter had long been to gain possession of 
some eligible sea-port on the Baltic, bj means of which the naval 
power of Russia (always his prime object) could be extended. In 
1700, he formed an alliance with Denmark and Poland for the pur- 
pose of wresting from Sweden certain provinces, of which that 
kingdom, by warfare or policy, had become possessed. The cele- 
brated Charles XII., at this time only eighteen years of age, was on 
the throne of that country, and his youth and inexperience seemed 
to offer a fair opportunity to the aggressive designs of his rivals. 
His military genius, however, at the very opening of the campaign, 
broke forth with great splendour. He speedily compelled the Danish 
monarch to accede to his terms ; the Polish forces met a severe check 
at Riga; and Peter, thus left to his own resources, invaded Ingria 
with sixty thousand men. This force, taken by surprise at Narva 
in the absence of the czar, was also defeated by Charles with severe 
loss, and Peter could only console himself by remarking that the 
Swedes would finally teach him how to beat them. 

He employed the ensuing winter in reorganizing his army, and 
in providing munitions of war; and in 1701, again took the field 
with a respectable force. During that and the succeeding year, he 
gained several successes over the Swedish generals — Charles mean- 
while pursuing his victorious career in Poland. A considerable 
portion of the disputed territory was soon conquered by the Russian 
forces; and near the mouth of the Neva, at the junction of Lake 
Ladoga with the Grulf of Finland, the czar laid the foundations of 
the famous city of St. Petersburg. The neighbourhood of this 
locality was a vast morass, almost destitute of materials for building; 
yet Peter pushed forward the undertaking with his accustomed 
energy and disregard of human life or suffering. In less than a 
year, thirty thousand buildings, of various kinds, had been erected ; 
and during that time an hundred thousand of his unfortunate sub- 
jects, drawn from every part of the empire to labour in this inclem- 
ent region, had perished from toil, privation, and exposure. 

His successes continued. Ingria and Courland were soon con- 
quered ; and Peter was enabled to resume his attention to the 
domestic affairs of his empire. In 1707, Charles, whose arms had 
hitherto been employed in other quarters, took the field against 
Russia, with an army of forty-five thousand men, declaring that he 
would treat with Peter at Moscow alone. A succession of triumphs 
marked the commencement of his campaign. Peter, narrowly 



436 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. 

escaping from his hands, retreated before him, laying waste the 
country to retard the progress of the victorious invader. 

On the 25th of June, 1708, a severe action, in which the Swedes 
sustained much loss, was fought on the banks of the Beresina. 
Charles, however, still pushed on for Moscow, though the country 
was laid waste through the entire route, and his troops were greatly 
exhausted by famine and fatigue. Suddenly, to the surprise of the 
czar, he turned off into the desert and inhospitable country of the 
Ukraine. This movement was caused by a secret negotiation with 
Mazeppa, the hetman or chief of the Cossacks, who had promised 
his own support and that of his people to the invader. This change 
in the campaign proved the ruin of the Swedish cause. Mazeppa 
was unable to fulfil his engagements ; and two miserable regiments 
were all that he could bring to the assistance of his ally. General 
Lewenhaupt, who, with the remainder of the Swedish army, 
attempted to effect a junction with his master, was intercepted and 
attacked by a force of nearly sixty thousand Eussians, commanded 
by the czar in person. The Swedes sustained a terrible defeat, 
leaving nearly half their number upon the field of battle. 

Charles, in the midst of a Russian winter, was now, with only 
twenty-five thousand men, worn out with privation and fatigue, 
traversing a frightful country, which afforded scarcely any suste- 
nance for his army. He lost his way, and, after marching and 
counter-marching for three months, was compelled to retrace his 
footsteps; and finally, in the month of May, 1709, sat down with 
the remnant of his army, now reduced to eighteen thousand men, 
before the fortified town of Pultowa, garrisoned by the Eussians. 

Peter, with nearly three times the number of his adversary 
hastened to attack him; and arrived before the walls on the 15th of 
June. By an artful manoeuvre, he succeeded in throAving reinforce- 
ments into the garrison; and his rival exclaimed, in chagrin, "I see 
well that we have taught the Muscovites the art of war!" After 
several skirmishes had occurred, Charles took the offensive, and 
made a furious attack on the Eussian intrenchments. His officers 
and men behaved with the greatest valour, and, sword in hand, car- 
ried the works in two places. Both sovereigns mingled in the 
thickest of the fight, and distinguished themselves equally by gen- 
eralship and personal bravery. After a desperate battle of two 
hours, the Swedish forces, outnumbered and fatigued, were utterly 
defeated, and were almost entirely slain or made prisoners. Charles, 



KUSSiA. 437 

witli a few attendants, fled precipitately, and songlit a refuge in 
Turkey. LewenTiaupt, with, thirteen thousand men, the relics of his 
force, was about the same time compelled to capitulate, and his troops 
were sent as colonists into the almost uninhabited wilds of Siberia. 
Such was the sudden and unlooked-for downfall of the greatest 
European conqueror of his day ; who, at an almost boyish age, had 
humbled all the states in his vicinity, had dethroned and appointed 
sovereigns, and had successively dictated terms in three hostile cap- 
itals. Eussia, which for a time had appeared an easy prey, waiting 
only for his leisure, now saw her principal foe a fugitive and exile 
in a distant land. Winter and famine, her strongest allies, had done 
their work: 

" And Moscow's walls were safe again — 

Until a day more dark and drear, 

And a more memorable year, 

Should give to slaughter and to shame 

A mightier host and haughtier name." 



CHAPTER 17. 

PETER THEGREAT CONTINUED. DISASTROUS WAR WITH THE 

TURKS. FRESH CONQUESTS AND IMPROVEMENTS. 

DEATH OF HIS SON ALEXIS. EXPEDITION TO 

THE CASPIAN SEA. DEATH OF PETER. 

By the late war, Livonia, Ingria, and Finland had been secured, 
and the czar's grand project of making Eussia a maritime power 
seemed destined for accomplishment. Danger soon menaced him 
from another quarter. The influence of the fugitive Charles, and 
the jealousy of Eussian encroachments in the south, determined the 
sultan of Turkey to renew hostilities. Peter's ambassador was pub- 
licly arrested at Constantinople, and committed to the "Castle of 
the Seven Towers." Grreat military preparations were made; while 
the czar, on his part, by levying forces and equipping fleets, pre- 
pared with great assiduity to meet the enemy. 

At this time (March 6th, 1711) he publicly acknowledged his 



438 '-THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

marriage with Catharine, to whom he had been piivately united four 
years before. She was originally a girl of humble condition, named 
Martha, who, in the early campaign in Livonia, had become the mis- 
tress of Menzikoff, the imperial favourite. Peter, attracted by her 
fascinations, took possession of her in 1704, and was ever afterwards 
devotedly attached to her. Without distinguished beauty, her 
manners and her mind were so superior as to inspire him with the 
strongest attachment and esteem. 

The only available force for the Turkish campaign consisted of 
less than forty thousand men; and with these the czar took up his 
march to meet the enemy. Disappointed in regard to reinforce- 
ments, he found himself, after a fatiguing march, in the midst of a 
desolate country near the river Pruth. The Turkish army, two 
hundred thousand in number, had passed the Danube, and on the 
27th of June crossed the Pruth in sight of the Russians. The little 
army of Peter, completely surrounded, was formed into a hollow- 
square, on one side of which the Turks precipitated themselves with 
great fury. Por three successive days, these attacks were repelled 
with great bravery, though at an immense expense of life. The 
ammunition of the Eussians was finally exhausted, and Peter, over- 
come with despair, retired in solitary gloom to his tent. Sixteen 
thousand of his soldiers had fallen, and further resistance seemed 
utterly hopeless. At this juncture, the tact and energy of the Czarina 
Catharine proved hi^ salvation. In despite of his orders, she entered 
the tent, aroused his spirits, and suggested a scheme for obtaining 
terms from the enemy. All her jewels and those of the other women 
in the camp were despatched as a conciliatory offering to the grand 
vizier, who commanded the enemy; a truce was granted, and nego- 
tiations were commenced. Peter was compelled, however, to pur- 
chase peace upon severe terms : among them, by the cession of Azof 
and a complete withdrawal from the Baltic. 

These disasters were soon compensated by fresh successes in the 
north. The czar, in alliance with Denmark, Hanover, and Bran- 
denburg, commenced hostilities afresh against the Swedes. The 
latter, in the absence of their sovereign, were unable to offer an 
effectual resistance, and Pomerania, won by the valour and policy 
of Gustavus Adolphus, was speedily wrested from their hands, and 
partitioned among the victors. Peter likewise gained distinguished 
naval successes on the Baltic, and alarmed the capital of Stockholm 
for its safety. He certainly contemplated, at this time, a descent 



EUSSIA, 



439 



upon Sweden itself, and with that view built within a twelvemonth 
fifty ships of war, besides a variety of galleys and other vessels. 

His new capital grew with immense rapidity ; and refinements and 
luxuries, heretofore unknown, were introduced into these desolate 
regions. Manufactures and trade began to flourish, and the city 
rapidly acquired commercial importance. The court, the diplomatic 
corps, and the chief nobility, all transferred thither from Moscow, 
added to its attractions. The power of Peter, indeed, now seemed 
to have attained its height. "Livonia, Esthonia, Carelia, Ingria, 
and nearly the whole of Finland were now annexed to the Russian 
empire. He had established outlets to the sea, by which he could 
communicate in security with civilized Europe ; and within his own 
territories he had created new establishments adapted to the various 
departments of industry, to the army, the navy, and the laws. Prince 
Galitzin occupied Finland with a disciplined army ; Generals Bruce 
and Bauer had the command of thirty thousand Russians, who were 
scattered through Poland; Marshal Scherematof lay in Pomerania 
with a large force ; Weimar had surrendered by capitulation ; and all 
the sovereigns of the north were either his allies or his instruments." 

He now undertook a second journey through Europe, and, with 
the Czarina Catharine, set out for Copenhagen. He received the 
highest honours in Denmark, Holland, France, and Prussia, and 
returned to his empire with a fresh supply of knoAvledge, the fruit 
of diligent study and research. 

Soon after his return, his revengeful and irritable temper led him 
to the commission of an atrocious and unnatural crime. The Czar- 
evitch Alexis, his son by Eudokhia, was at this time twenty-nine 
years of age, and had in a variety of ways offended the stern and 
overbearing temper of the emperor. He was of a reckless and dis- 
sipated character, and viewed the favourite projects of the czar with 
indifference or dislike. In 1717, under pretext of joining his father, 
who had commanded his presence at Copenhagen, he quitted Russia, 
and took refuge from the anger of the czar with the Emperor Charles 
VI. His father, by a promise of clemency, induced him to return, 
and the unfortunate prince arrived at Moscow in February, 1718. 

Here, however, he was compelled in the most solemn form pub- 
licly to assent to the renunciation of his inheritance, and was then 
remanded to a dungeon. The most frivolous accusations, at the 
instance of the czar, were brought against him. He was examined 
with such pertinacity and severity as almost to destroy the feeble 



440 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

portion of reason Avhicli nature had allotted him. His friends and 
companions, in great numbers, were tortured or executed. On the 
24th of June, he was brought before a solemn tribunal, composed 
of the chief grandees of Eussia: his father stood forward as his 
accuser, demanding punishment. He was sentenced to death, as a 
matter of course, by a unanimous vote of this servile assembly, and 
was remanded to prison. A few days afterwards,rhe died in a mys- 
terious manner in his dungeon. A sudden attack of apoplexy was 
publicly assigned as the cause ; but there is little doubt that he died 
of poison, probably administered by the hands of his own father, 
who wished to avoid the odium of a public execution. 

During the continuance of this domestic tragedy, the zeal of the 
czar for the advancement and prosperity of his empire never flagged 
for a moment. Every improvement in commerce, manufactures, 
and police was Introduced, and zealously extended through the 
country, St, Petersburg became a port of great commercial import- 
ance; and the trade of Archangel and other northern ports was 
diverted to the new capital. 

The preliminaries of a peace with Sweden were arranged; but 
before it was concluded, Charles (who, after an exile of five years, 
had returned to his kingdom,) was killed by an accidental shot 
before the walls of Frederickstadt, a petty fortress in Norway. 
Peter, with a singular outbreak of emotion, burst into tears on hear- 
ing of the death of his ancient rival, and exclaimed, "My dear 
Charles, how much I lament you !" Some further hostilities occurred ; 
but in 1721, a treaty of peace was signed, by which Eussia made 
acquisitions of territory of the highest importance to her political 
and commercial prosperity. 

The emperor's son, Peter Petrovitz, the heir to the throne, had 
died two years before these events, and the czar, to secure the car- 
rying out of his plans, caused his nobles and subjects to take a 
solemn oath of allegiance to any person whom he should nominate 
as his successor. 

The Afghans and other warlike Persian tribes, revolting against 
the authority of the shah, had committed great outrages on the 
Eussians at Shamachia. Peter, to avenge this injury, and to make 
himself master of the shores of the Caspian Sea, in 1722 set out on 
an expedition to the East, He reached the Caspian, and took pos- 
session of the city of Derbent; but the difficulties of the climate and 
the country, with the loss of his vessels by tempests, compelled 



SUSSIA. 



441 



liirn to return. Bj treaty with the shah, however, he obtained pos- 
session of the coveted provinces. 

In 1724, Catharine was crowned as empress, with the greatest 
solemnity and magnificence, the imperial manifesto making a touch- 
ing allusion to her virtues and her services to the state, especially 
in the disastrous defeat of the Russians on the Pruth. This august 
ceremony was considered as an indirect manner of expressing the 
czar's intentions that his consort should be his successor on the throne. 
He did not long survive this testimony of affection and gratitude. 
A disorder, aggravated by his refusal of medical advice, had been 
for some time preying on his constitution, and his ardent tempera- 
ment led him to encounter an exposure which proved fatal. He 
expired on the 28th of January, 1725, after a fruitless attempt to 
express by writing his wishes as to the succession. 

While it is impossible to withhold respect and admiration for the 
wonderful talents and the indomitable perseverance of Peter, the 
mind, in contemplating his career, is continually shocked by instances 
of personal grossness, of frantic rage, and unrelenting cruelty. The 
union in a single person of the sagacious legislator and the remorse- 
less tyrant, seems peculiar to the sovereigns of Russia; and assuredly, 
in either character, the energetic deeds of Peter have never been 
surpassed by his predecessors or successors in empire. The better 
portion of his character has, however, been mostly preserved in the 
memories of mankind; and Russia, which from a vast semi-barbar- 
ous province, he raised into a civilized and mighty empire, has 
always regarded his name with the deepest veneration. Every relic 
of his career is treasured with religious respect — his tools, his work- 
shop, his little vessel, and the plain mechanical dress which he pre- 
ferred to any of the trappings of royalty. A magnificent equestrian 
statue, erected to his memory by Catharine II., still stands at St. 
Petersburg; the horse treads beneath his feet the serpent of Envy; 
and the rider proudly extends his hand over the vast capital which 
his genius and energy had raised from the surrounding forests and 
morasses. 



442 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



CHAPTER ?. 

CATHARINE I., PETER II., ANNA, IVAN, ELIZABETH, 
AND PETER III. 

By the address of Menzikoff, her favourite and adviser, Catharine 
was proclaimed empress without opposition on the very day of her 
husband's death. The commencement of her reign was distinguished 
by acts of grace and conciliation to her subjects, and by a formidable 
increase of the military and naval power of the empire. Ere long, 
however, the discretion and virtue which had so long marked her 
career, yielded to the enticements of unlimited power; her favours 
were lavished on a succession of worthless minions, and her palace 
became a scene of gross excess and licentiousness. She expired, 
after a brief reign, on the 17th of May, 1727, leaving a will by which 
Peter, the son of the unhappy Alexis, was appointed her successor, 
under the guardianship, among others, of Anna and Elizabeth, 
daughters of Peter the Great. 

The marriage of the new emperor, at this time only eleven years 
of age, to the daughter of Menzikoff, was also provided for ; but the 
youthful prince, contemplating this union with disgust, was easily 
persuaded to consent to the disgrace and banishment of the late 
favourite ; who, after a life of extraordinary success and splendour, 
ended his days in a dismal exile at Siberia. The influence of the 
family of Dalgoruky (into which the young czar had married) was 
now complete; but his sudden death, in 1730, disconcerted their 
ambitious designs. With him expired the line of Eomanoff, of which 
he was the last male representative. 

Anna, duchess of Courland, a daughter of Ivan, (half-brother of 
Peter the Great, and for a time his associate on the throne,) was next 
elected empress by an assembly of the council, the senate, and 
the great officers of state; various conditions, restricting the impe- 
rial authority and increasing that of the council, being annexed. 
Secure upon the throne, however, she at once assumed unlimited 
sovereignty, and the country was governed by her favourite Biren, 
who conducted himself with great insolence and cruelty. 

The provinces acquired by Peter from the Shah of Persia, had 



EUSSIA. 



443 



proved a source of great loss and vexation; an hundred and thirty 
thousand Eussians, in a few years, had perished from war and the 
pestilential climate. They were accordingly receded to the shah, 
and, the empire being strengthened by his alliance and that of Aus- 
tria, a war with Turkey was recommenced. This contest was 
protracted for a number of years; but finally the defection of the 
latter ally compelled Eussia, in 1739, to make peace. Little advan- 
tage had been obtained, and the lives of an hundred thousand 
Eussians had been sacrificed in vain. 

After the death of the empress, in the following year, the govern- 
ment, for a brief period, was held by the German relations and 
favourites to whom had been committed the guardianship of her 
infant grandson Ivan, the heir to the throne ; but on the night of 
the 6th of January, 1742, the Princess Elizabeth, (daughter of Peter 
the Great,) by a bold and sudden movement, overthrew the regency, 
and gained possession of the throne. The intrigues of a surgeon, 
named Lestocq, her daring and artful adviser, and the devotion of 
only three hundred soldiers, had enabled her, by a coup de main, to 
seize upon the persons of all opposed to her ; and the general dislike 
of a German regency was such, that she kept peaceable possession 
of the throne thus suddenly and singularly acquired. The chiefs 
of the defeated faction, composed of men of the highest rank and 
influence, were mostly banished to Siberia. 

Hostilities with Sweden, which for some time had been discon- 
tinued, were now revived ; and that unfortunate nation, overmatched 
and defeated, was compelled, by the treaty of 1743, to relinquish 
fresh portions of her territory. Since that time, indeed, the influ- 
ence of Eussia, has been so predominant over the court of Stockholm, 
that Sweden can be considered as little more than an appanage to 
the empire of the czars. In the protracted wars waged between 
Prussia and Austria, the forces and the influence of Elizabeth were 
always opposed to Frederick the Great, against whom she had a 
violent personal antipathy. 

She had nominated, as her successor, her nephew, the youthful 
Peter, duke of Holstein; the degrading nature of whose tastes, and 
whose tendency to drunkenness and excess, would, she trusted, pre- 
vent him from becoming a formidable tool in the hands of ambitious 
adventurers. Catharine, a daughter of the prince of Anhalt, with 
"whom the empress caused him to be united, was a woman of 
unbounded licentiousness and infamy of life ; but Elizabeth, whose 



444 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

habits were equally scandalous, exhorted hirn to patience and mod- 
eration ; and this unfortunate prince was enabled, only by threatening 
a public use of the cudgel, to remove from court Poniatowsky, 
the Polish ambassador, and the avowed paramour of his infamous 
consort. 

Elizabeth died on the 29th of December, 1761, and the hapless 
Peter ascended the throne without opposition. An immediate change 
in Russian policy occurred. Frederick, for whom he cherished the 
most enthusiastic esteem, was saved from destruction by the prompt 
action of his Russian admirer. The humanity and magnanimity of 
the czar, in spite of his errors and weakness, must command our 
sympathy. Clemency, liberality, and reform, were the order of the 
day ; and the wretched families exiled to Siberia by his predecessor 
were speedily restored to their country. 

Unfortunately, he neglected to conciliate the national tastes and 
prejudices of his people; and his habits of sensuality and drunken- 
ness prevented him from observing the active and untiring efforts 
of Catharine to form a separate faction for herself This abandoned 
woman, after a long career of almost unparalleled intrigue and dis- 
sipation, had resolved to depose her unsuspecting husband, and to 
place the crown upon her own head. Five brothers, named Orloff, 
and another favourite named Potemkin, were her principal advisers ; 
but she had numerous and powerful allies, especially among the 
priests, who were enraged at the schemes which Peter had devised 
for curtailing their power and their revenues. 

The plan of the conspirators was skilfully matured, and on the 
9th of July, 1762, Catharine put herself at the head of a great 
number of the troops and citizens of St. Petersburg, and in the chief 
church of the city, amid a crowd of ecclesiastics, was solemnly pro- 
claimed sole sovereign of Russia. A report was spread that Peter 
had met with death from an accident; and with a suddenness com- 
mon enough in Russian history, she stepped at once into undisturbed 
possession of the throne. 

The unfortunate Peter, unwilling to fly, and unable to resist, was 
compelled to sign an act of abdication, and was then committed 
close prisoner to the fortress of Robscha. The usual fate of dethroned 
princes, especially in the East, speedily overtook him. The physi- 
cian of the empress, with others, was despatched to his dungeon; 
and, under pretext of drinking with him in a friendly manner, con- 
trived to put a deadly poison in his cup. The effect, however, was 




THE RETREAT FROM RUSSIA. 



■'A. STORMY wind a.iso began to arise, and whirl the snow f i'O ni the t?a,rth, as 
well a,s that from the heavens, into dis!Zy eddies around the soidiers' heads 
There were many hurled to the earth in this nuanner, where the sa'me snows 
furnished them with .an instant grave; Under which they were concealed until 
che next summer came, and displayed their ghastly rem.ains in the open a,;r 
A great number of slight hillocks on each side of the road intim.ated, m tho 
naean while, the fate of these unfortunate men." — Scott's Life of Napoleon 



EcrssiA. 



445 



too slow for the impatience of tlie assassins : Orloff and otTaers of 
the conspirators rushed into the apartment; and the unfortunate 
czar, after a vain struggle, was strangled on the floor of his dungeon. 



CHAPTER ?L 

CATHARINE II. AND PAUL. 

The long and (as it is usually termed) successful reign of Catha- 
rine II., was marked by a degree of profligacy, such as even the 
Eussian court had never known before. Her lovers might almost 
be counted by hundreds ; and her whole career, as well of personal 
vice as of political and military success, has well entitled her to 
the appellation of "the Northern Semiramis." 

The unfortunate Ivan, who had long been kept in imprisonment, 
and for whose escape a plot had been undertaken, was killed in the 
attempt, and the empress was thus freed from one, another possible 
rival to the throne. The empire, especially the Cossack portion, 
was, however, long annoyed by a rebel chief, named Pugatschef, 
who assumed the title of Peter III., and imposed upon many the 
belief that he was really the czar, escaped from his dungeon. He 
was finally captured and executed. 

Under her reign occurred the infamous partition of Poland, at 
three successive periods, by which the nationality of that noble 
country was extinguished, and its territories divided among the 
imperial vultures of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 

In 1769 a Russian army invaded the Crimea; and for many years 
a series of hostilities continued, by which Russia gained continual 
accessions of territory, and the Ottoman empire was reduced to so 
feeble a condition, that its independence and the security of the 
remainder of its possessions have since been mainly dependant upon 
the protection of the other European powers. Sweden also met 
with fresh reverses, and became farther and farther entangled in the 
web of Russian policy and dictation. Catharine II. died in 1796, 
after a reign of thirty-eight years, considered glorious or infamous, 
according to the view of her successes, or of her vices and her crimes. 



4,4:6 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKT. 

The unhappy Paul, her son, born in 1754, although named as heir 
to the throne, had been, for many years, the victim of the grossest 
neglect and persecution. His mind, naturally eccentric, had thus 
perhaps become tinged with a degree of insanity; the result was, 
a singular species of capricious and meddling despotism. Besides 
great and real grievances, his officers and subjects were annoyed 
by the trivialties of a petty and whimsical interference. The print- 
ing-press was proscribed, and certain French words, to which he 
had an aversion, were not permitted to be used. The shape of a 
hat, the colour of a riband, must all be submitted to the dictation 
of the czar. 

A war with Persia had been commenced by Catharine, and vari- 
ous provinces were thus added to Eussia in the East; Georgia, in 
the year 1800, being incorporated by Paul with his own dominions. 
In the hostilities which at this time, in consequence of the French 
Eevolution, were raging in Europe, Paul, for a time, took the anti- 
Gallican part with his usual fierceness and impetuosity; and in the 
campaigns of Italy, his general, the famous Suwarrow, at a great 
expense of human life and suffering, waged an obstinate war 
with the generals of the French republic. Moreau was obliged to 
retreat before the Eussian commander, who, in 1799, entered Milan 
as a conqueror. The French were soon compelled to effect the total 
evacuation of Lombardy and Piedmont. At the sanguinary and 
hard-contested battle of the Trebbia, Macdonald, with inferior forces, 
fought the Austrian and Eussian armies for three days, during which 
twelve thousand of his men were killed and wounded, and the allies 
met with nearly an equal loss. He was, however, forced to retreat. 

The subseqent campaign of Suwarrow and Korsakow, much of 
which was conducted among the rugged and difficult passes about 
Switzerland, proved, however, disastrous in the extreme; and the 
former, compelled to retreat across the Alps, lost thousands of his 
soldiers in the terrible passage. Of eighty thousand men, of which 
his array had been originally composed, a miserable remnant alone 
returned to their country. Suwarrow, defeated and disgraced, soon 
after died of a broken heart. 

In the following year (1800) the czar, always irritable and impetu- 
ous, quarrelled with his allies, and, with his customary caprice, 
displayed a sudden and violent admiration of Napoleon, who had 
now returned from his Egj^ptian expedition, and was the : most 
prominent person in the French republic. The latter, by restoring 




NICHOLAS I., EMPEROR OE RUSSIA 



"I HA';f, r^s:(i>-d ju >r, P- t'-:i\sl n r>4 .';, r .'<oii:'- ye:irs, and hrive seeu liic Emperor 
K^ohojus MWijo.-t (Vii'^y inii'iiig r[:\^ r ; :ij e I v^iniiiued there The above engravibg 
IS taken iVom a j.-ortrait I y AVright, which, froni its extraordinHry resemblance 
to the oi'igina,!. ci'eated much sensation. I recoguised the emperor ii.stantane 
ouslyl'roMi t\ii.-i ilriwir;g, though surronnd'-d. h;,' :he great officers of his house 
hold 'JOHN HALFIN ■' 



E U S S I A . 447 

the Eussian prisoners, and by otlier delicate attentions, skilfully 
increased this favourable disposition. The czar was soon completely 
under the influence of the new and brilliant object of his attach- 
ment, and the policy of France, supported by such a powerful ally, 
rapidly rose in the ascendant. Severe blows were struck at the 
commercial prosperity of England, and a scheme was even devised 
for the overthrow of her supremacy in the East Indies. 

All the plans and wishes of the first consul were, however, for 
a time, frustrated by the assassination of his unfortunate ally, which, 
after the Eussian fashion, speedily occurred. The mind of Paul 
had for some time been evidently impaired, his despotic caprices 
increased in frequency, and a conspiracy, headed by Count Pahlen, 
the governor of St. Petersburg, prince Zubof and others, had been 
arranged for his deposition, and perhaps for his murder. He was 
surprised at night, in the palace of St. Michel, was seized by the 
conspirators, and required to sign an abdication. On his refusal, a 
struggle ensued, and the unfortunate czar, overpowered and flung on 
the floor, was strangled with a sash. 

Napoleon, on learning of this event, was overwhelmed with grief 
and vexation, and dwelt so pertinaciously on the topic, that Fouch6, 
his cool and able chief of the police, exclaimed, with some impatience, 
"What would you have! it is a method of vacating the throne 
peculiar to the institutions of that country." Indeed, there was 
nothing new or singular in the circumstance. " The only matter of 
surprise," says an interesting writer, "is, not that Paul was assassin- 
ated, but that, in a country where such deeds are of common occur- 
rence, he was permitted to live so long." 



CHAPTER ?n 



ALEXANDER AND NICHOLAS. 



The youthful Alexander, for whose elevation the deposition and 
death of his unfortunate father had been projected, though filled 
with horror at the fatal result, was proclaimed, amid the great exulta- 
tion of his people, and thus, on the 24:th of March, 1801, ascended 



448 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the throne of all the Eussias. It was, liowever, ominously remarked 
by a lady of rank, at tlie coronation, that the "young emperor walked 
preceded by the assassins of his grandfather, followed by those of 
his father, and surrounded by his own," 

The policy of Eussia changed forthwith. Alliance with England 
was immediately made, and hostilities with France, as a matter of 
course, soon followed. In the account of the latter nation, the wars, 
treaties, and political relations of France and Eussia, during the 
remainder of the career of Napoleon, will be found briefly narrated. 
In the splendid and overwhelming victory of Austerlitz, decisive 
of the fate of Austria, the two northern sovereigns lay completely 
at the mercy of their imperial victor from the south ; and Alexander 
was happy to retire, with the remainder of his forces, to his own 
dominions. 

After the campaign of Prussia, in 1806, when that nation, in an 
incredibly short space of time, was defeated and conquered by 
Napoleon, further and most sanguinary hostilities, highly disastrous 
to the czar, occurred between France and Eussia. 

Alexander, seeing his forces again and again defeated, and desir- 
ous of leisure to pursue his ambitious designs on Turkey, now 
changed his policy entirely. He entered into strict alliance and 
apparently personal friendship with the "Man of Destiny," before 
whom every throne on the continent, except his own, had tottered 
or fallen to the ground. By the treaty of Tilsit, in 1807, all the 
ambitious schemes of Napoleon were recognised by the czar, and 
extensive plans for conquest and partition were agitated by the 
imperial allies. The entire policy of France was adopted, and with 
such a support, seemed secure of controlling, with hardly an effort, 
that of all continental Europe. 

Mutual jealousy, ere long, broke up these promising projects. 
Napoleon perceived that he had lent a too hasty encouragement to 
the designs of his ally upon Turkey; and that the Eussian empire, 
once in possession of a foothold on the Mediterranean, might become 
too preponderant for the safety of his own possessions. His refusal 
to permit the spoliation of the sultan, combined with the unpopular- 
ity in Eussia of the new alliance and the acts restricting commercial 
intercourse, estranged the Eussian sovereign, and precipitated hos- 
tilities. Negotiation was for a long time carried on between the 
two powers, each for a time shunning the responsibility of again 
committing Europe to a general war. 



KUSSIA. 



449 



All attempts at a pacific arrangement, however, proved fruitless ; 
and in the summer of 1812, the French emperor, with nearly half a 
million of men, set out upon his memorable expedition to conquer 
the wilds of the Northern empire. The sanguinary battle of Boro- 
dino, on the 5th of September, opened his way to the ancient capital 
of Eussia ; and on the 14th, with the army under his immediate 
command reduced by fighting and hardship to about an hundred 
thousand men, he entered Moscow, and took up his quarters in the 
imperial palace of the Kremlin. 

The city was deserted, except by ruffians and incendiaries; and 
the memorable conflagration which, during the next four days, laid 
it in ashes, disconcerted all the plans of Napoleon, and rendered 
retreat inevitable. After a month passed in vain and fruitless 
attempts at negotiation with the czar, who knew his advantage too 
well to treat, the French army, in three divisions, commenced a 
retrograde movement toward the frontier. The horrors of this dis- 
astrous retreat, aggravated by a winter unusually early and severe, 
perhaps surpass any thing recorded in the calamities of warfare. Day 
after day, the unfortunate soldiers of the "Grand Army," accustomed 
to the milder climates of Italy and France, sank in great numbers by 
the road-side, or perished in bravely but vainly resisting the attack 
of the Russian forces. At the passage of the Beresina, eifected before 
a greatly superior force of the enemy, such numbers perished, that, 
according to the Russian official account, thirty-six thousand bodies 
were counted, on the thawing of the river, in the following spring. 

The downfall of the European supremacy of France, for which 
these calamitous events were the signal, almost immediately suc- 
ceeded; and after a series of campaigns, dreadfully destructive of 
human life, the allied sovereigns, among them the Czar Alexander, 
entered the French capital in triumph, and imposed upon the nation 
the antiquated sway of the Bourbons. Some magnanimity and 
remembrance of former friendship induced the Russian monarch to 
effect a somewhat considerate arrangement in behalf of the abdicated 
emperor; and the sovereignty of Elba, which was thus assigned to 
him, afforded, not long after, the means of that memorable enterprise, 
which for a brief period placed him once more on the imperial throne, 
and resulted in an overthrow more utterly complete and final. 

The Emperor Alexander, in 1825, (quite contrary to anticipation 
and to the frequent fate of Russian sovereigns,) died a natural death 
— a fever, with which he was attacked in journeying through an 
29 



450 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

"unliealtliy province of his empire, proving speedily fatal. His 
brother Nicholas, who succeeded him, and who is the present sov- 
ereign of Eussia, proved a prince of great intelligence and legislative 
talent; but ambitious, unprincipled, and apparently remorseless in 
the extreme. The cruelties inflicted by his authority upon the 
unfortunate Poles, who, in 1830, made a brave but unsuccessful 
attempt to regain their nationality, must for ever stamp his memory 
with the deepest odium and abhorrence. These outrages, inflicted 
under the personal tyranny of his brother, the Grand-duke Constan- 
tine, have provoked a feeling of hatred toward the imperial family 
of the most deep and enduring nature ; and any favourable oppor- 
tunity would probably be the signal for a new and desperate attempt 
at Revolution. 

Despite these and other minor atrocities, the czar has displayed 
great liberality and enterprise in introducing arts and improvements 
into his immense dominions. Mechanical genius has been most lib- 
erally encouraged, and several Americans, by assiduously promoting 
the favourite objects of the czar, have acquired high station or emol- 
ument. The war which, for many years, the Russian army has been 
waging against the brave mountaineers east of the Black Sea, has 
hitherto principally resulted only in the loss and destruction of 
immense numbers of the imperial forces. A watchful and greedy 
eye is still kept upon Turkey, which for centuries has been the 
prize most coveted by Russian ambition; but the jealous attitude 
of England, of France, and other continental powers, has hitherto 
prevented any very decided act of aggression on the remainder of 
the Ottoman empire. 



FRANCE. 



UiLliiiljTiLjliii X 



THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF TRANCE. THE ROMANS; 

THE FRANKS. THE MEROVINGIAN AND CARLO- 

VINGIAN DYNASTIES. 

France, the ancient Gaul, wHicli lias long oeen one of tlie most 
refined and powerful nations on earth, was originally inhabited bj 
an uncivilized race, which probably emigrated from Germany. 
They lived in the usual primitive manner, by hunting and fishing, 
and dwelt in miserable huts of wood or clay. Their religious rites, 
like those of the Britons, were Druidical, and human sacrifices 
were not unfirequent. 

About sixty years before Christ, Julius Csesar, in his wonderful 
career of western conquest, subdued these barbarous tribes, and 
introduced Roman governors and colonists. The newly-acquired 
region became of considerable commercial importance, and many 
splendid remains of Eoman architecture attest its wealth and civili- 
zation. Paris was, at that day, a considerable city, and Marseilles 
(Massilia) was even then a flourishing sea-port. 

The country was held by its conquerors about as long as their 
other western possessions. In the beginning of the fifth century, a 
tribe of Germans, called Franks (Freemen), led by their king, Phara- 
mond, established themselves in the northern part of France. Among 
the kings of this "Merovingian" dynasty, the name of Clovis, who 
reigned from 481 to 511, is most distinguished. He became converted 
to Christianity about the middle of his reign, and introduced the 
new religion into his dominions, then widely extended by force and 
policy. After a reign of thirty years, passed mostly in war and 
violence, he expired, leaving to his successors a monarchy of which 



452 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

he may be considered the founder. The celebrated Salic Law, an 
article of which excluded females from the throne of France, origin- 
ated with this monarch. 

The next important name in the history of this dynasty is that 
of Dagobert, who in 628 succeeded, with his brother, to the throne, 
and, soon afterwards, by the murder of the latter, gained entire 
possession of the sovereignty. Despite his crimes, the kingdom, 
through his ability and justice, increased greatly in wealth and 
power. He died in 638, and for a century his successors held a 
merely nominal royalty, the true power being usurped by their 
officers, the "mayors of the palace." Of these, the most remarkable 
was Charles Martel, who, in 714, inherited the authority of his 
father Pepin. The genius and valour of this prince saved South- 
ern Europe from the destruction which seemed impending over her. 
A vast body of Saracens, having overrun Spain, marched into 
France, and threatened its entire conquest. Charles, in a terrible 
battle, near Tours, which lasted for seven days, utterly defeated 
them, and three hundred thousand of their number are said (prob- 
ably with exaggeration) to have left their bones in France. This 
battle, like that of Marathon, where the Persian hordes were repelled 
from overwhelming a more civilized race, has been considered as 
one of those contests most decisive of the fate of human advance- 
ment. In 737, he relinquished the farce of appointing a nominal 
sovereign, and openly mounted the throne, which he had long pos- 
sessed in reality. His son Pepin, after his death in 741, assumed 
the royal title, and the Merovingian line (named from Meroveus) 
was extinguished by the Carlovingian (named from Charles, the son 
of Pepin). During the reign of Pepin, (called the Little,) France 
made great advances in wealth and political importance, and the 
fame of her sovereign extended into the distant regions of the East. 
His renown, however, was destined to be overshadowed by that of 
his son, the famous Charlemagne (Charles the Great), who on his 
death, in 768, ascended the throne. 

This renowned monarch was of gigantic stature, and his ambi- 
tion was fully sustained by his energy and talent. Though fond of 
learning, and a liberal patron of religion, literature, and science, he 
was unable to write — a deficiency common in that barbarous age. 
Conquest was his chief passion, and his political sagacity enabled 
him to retain firmly the territories acquired by his arms. In 777, 
returning from an expedition into Spain, he met with a signal mis- 



FRANCE. 453 

fortune. The rear of iiis army, while defiling through the narrow 
pass of Eoncesvalles, in the Pyrenees, was attacked by the mount- 
aineers, and cut off, almost to a man. His nephew, the renowned 
Eoland, fell, fighting valiantly, and his bravest peers died with him. 
No incident in warfare has been offcener celebrated in the ballads, 
songs, and other primitive records of the two nations. 

By the energy of Charlemagne, the Northmen or Normans, who 
had long harassed -the shores of Southern Europe, were repelled, 
and the coasts were protected by a powerful navy. His empire was 
continually enlarged, until it extended over France, Italy, Germany, 
most of Central Europe, and a large part of Spain. In the year 
800, he received from the Pope, at Eome, with the most solemn 
ceremonies, the title of "Emperor of the West." His fame, like 
that of his father, extended to the remotest regions of the East, and 
he maintained a friendly intercourse with the great Caliph Haroun 
al Raschid. His capital was in the city of Aix, where his time was 
principally passed, and where, in 813, he resigned the throne of his 
vast dominions to his son Louis. He died early in the following 
year, in the seventy-second year of his age, and the forty-fourth of 
his reign. 

Louis, called the "Good-natured," possessed little of his talents. 
He died in 840, after a reign of twenty years, embittered by the 
rebellious conduct of his sons. The great empire, cemented by the 
valour and genius of his father, was rapidly dismembered. After 
much warfare and contention among the undutiful heirs, Charles, 
called the Bald, took France ; Lothaire, Italy ; and Louis, Germany. 
The former died in 877, and was succeeded by his son, under the title 
of Louis II. 

The political condition of France, and much of the empire, was 
strictly feudal ; lands being held of the king by his nobles, on a 
military tenure, and tilled by the enslaved native inhabitants or serfs* 
The most powerfal vassals were the Twelve Peers of France, who, 
like all great nobles of the time, exercised an almost independent 
sovereignty within their own limits, 

Louis II. died after a reign of two years, and his kingdom was 
again dismembered; Bozon, a powerful noble, seizing the kingdom 
of Provence, and the remainder being divided between his children, 
Louis III. and Carloman. They died, after a brief reign, and in 884 
the crown was bestowed by the leading nobles and clergy on Charles 
the Fat, son of Louis of Germany. Nearly the whole empire of 



454 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOET. 

Charlemagne was thus reunited under his descendant ; but in vain. 
The Normans had again commenced their fierce incursions, and in 
884 beleaguered Paris itself, which, however, successfally resisted a 
siege of several years. The incapacity of Charles was so gross, that 
in 888, by common consent, his authority was disowned, and Count 
Eudes, a valiant lord, was chosen in his place. At his death in 898, 
Charles (called the Simple), a son of Louis II., and who had already 
been proclaimed by the bishops and nobles, was acknowledged king. 

In the the year 911, RoUo, a brave and politic leader of the 
Normans, gained such advantages, that Charles was compelled to 
surrender to him the large and fertile province still called Nor- 
mandy. This infusion of a new and vigoroTis race proved of the 
greatest advantage to the French nation and to Europe. The 
Normans, though still distinguished above all other nations by their 
valour and military skill, cultivated refinement and policy; and their 
province soon became highly prosperous, powerful, and, for that age, 
intellectual and refined. Charles was deposed on account of his 
incapacity, and Eaoul, who succeeded him, died in 935. 

Through the influence of Hugh the Fair, the nephew of Eudes, 
and for many years the real ruler of the kingdom, Louis lY., a son 
of Charles, and English by education, was placed upon the throne. 
Being a man of ability, he soon refused to submit to the dictation 
of Hugh, and the latter, assisted by the duke of Normandy, waged 
war against him. He died in 954, and was siicceeded by his son 
Lothaire. 

In the course of the latter's reign, Otho, emperor of Germany, 
invaded France with a large army ; but was unable to take the 
capital, which was strongly fortified by Hiigh Capet, son of Hugh 
the Fair, and Count of Paris. Lothaire died in 987, and his son 
Louis Y., to whom Capet was guardian, followed him in a few 
months. With him ended the Carlovingian dynasty, under vfhich, 
owing to a want of capacity and courage, the limits of the kingdom 
had been reduced to a comparatively small territory. During this 
period the French had acquired their present name (from the Franks) 
and the foundation of their present language, which is based upon a 
mixture of the Frank and Latin tongues. 



FEANCE. 455 



UitltiljTXJail, dij, 



THE HOUSE OE CAPET. 

Hugh Capet, finding no one in a condition to oppose him, in 987 
seized upon the throne. His devotion and his gifts secured the 
support of the clergy, the most influential part of the community; 
but he experienced much difficulty from the opposition of the power- 
ful and factious nobles of his time. These petty tyrants exercised 
a complete despotism within the limits of their own territories, and 
were almost continually engaged in a savage and predatory warfare 
with each other. In this "iron age," as it is justly termed, the little 
learning extant was confined to the priests, Gerbert, the king's 
secretary, was, indeed, distinguished for his attainments, and after- 
wards held the popedom, under the title of Sylvester II. 

Eobert (the Pious) succeeded his father Hugh, in 996. His reign 
was distinguished by a singular delusion. Like certain fanatics of 
our own time, mankind generally supposed the world to be coming 
to an end; and the year 1000. or 1001 was fixed upon as the date of 
its termination. From neglect in cultivating the land, a famine 
nearly ensued. The church now began to evince the extent of its 
power. Eobert had refused to separate from his wife Bertha, who 
was his distant relation. The Pope, to enforce obedience, excom- 
municated him, laid the kingdom under an interdict, and finally 
compelled him to submit to a separation. Persecutions for heresy 
were also common, even at this early age, and the cruel custom of 
burning heretics was often practised. Robert died in 1031, after a 
reign of thirty-four years, passed chiefly in the observance of the 
bigoted and unenlightened rites of the religion of his day. 

His son Henry I. succeeded him, being supported by the power- 
ful duke of Normandy, called Robert the Devil. He married Anne, 
a princess of Russia, and reigned in rather an insignificant way, 
until his death in 1060. During this time Robert had died on a 
pilgrimage in Palestine, and his son William (afterwards the cele- 
brated "Conqueror" of England) had, though very young, ably and 
successfully maintained his claim to the dukedom. 



456 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

The remarkable institution and code of " Chivalry" was now 
founded, and flourished greatly from this time. It was originally an 
association for the defence of the weak, for deference and respect to" 
age and to the fair, and for performing feats of knightly gallantry. 
Though some of these objects were but partially secured, (the 
"knights" finally becoming great oppressors and ravishers them- 
selves,) it yet imparted a more generous tone to the savage warfare 
of the times, and hastened the march of civilization. 

Philip, at the age of seven, succeeded his father, under the guard- 
ianship of the able and virtuous Baldwin, earl of Flanders. On 
assuming the government, at the age of fourteen, his vices and 
incapacity soon became apparent. Events of the greatest import- 
ance to Europe occurred during his reign. William of Normandy, 
his nominal vassal, conquered the kingdom of England, and became 
far more powerful and independent than his sovereign who took 
the mean satisfaction of assisting and abetting his revolted sons. 
Another body of Normans, headed by Eobert Guiscard, a descend- 
ant of Rollo, seized the kingdom of Sicily from the Saracens, and 
gained an extensive footing in Italy. A still more important enter- 
prise was the first crusade, which in the last of the eleventh century, 
distracted all Europe, and especially allured and carried away the 
excitable French. 

Pilgrimages to the Holy Land had long been practised, and under 
the humane and enlightened rule of the Saracens, the multitudes 
who resorted to the tomb of Christ, at Jerusalem, were tolerated 
and protected. But in 1094, when the fierce and bigoted Turks 
included the Holy City in their conquests, the pious devotees who 
resorted to the Holy Sepulchre, met with great indignity and cruelty ; 
and a spirit of revenge was awakened throughout Christian Europe. 
Peter the Hermit, who had himself witnessed the atrocities of the 
infidels, travelled from city to city, and exhorted princes and people 
to rescue the Sepulchre of their Saviour from the thraldom of 
Mahomet. A vast religious enthusiasm was thus aroused. The 
knights were eager for a new field of distinction ; the people were 
zealous to gain a remission of their sins, as promised by the Pope ; 
and the cross was assumed throughout France with the greatest 
alacrity. 

A vast number of feeble and unwarlike pilgrims first commenced 
the expedition over land ; but nearly all perished on the way from 
exposure, fatigue, and attack b}^ the nations through which they 




PETER THE HERMIT, 

J:'KA"i;iNU FOB THE 30CCESS OK THE UBUa.-.DiLK3 

"I MEAD not to class Peter the Hermit amoDg grent D3en; I'Ut certa:jj 1 3- he 
deserves the character of one of the most extruordiiiai'v men tliat Eui-ope ever 
produced, if it wem "but for the circumstance of having convtiised a world — led 
one continent to comlDat to extermination against another, and yet left histo- 
rians in douht -whether he vras madman or prophet, fool or politician " — His-iohy 

OF ChIVALET and the CRUSADEa 







DEPARTURE OF THE EIR^T CRUSADE, 

LED BY I'ETltR THE HERMIT AND WALTE]l THE PENNILESS 

The Counts Palatine ^vere already full oi' the desire to undertake thi;^ 
_'rtirney and the knights of an inferior order soon felt the same zeai Th',- 
pocr theniselves scon cauglat tlae flanie so ardently, that no one paused to 
think of the smallness of his wealtb, out each set about selling his property 
— , — — — -Who shall tell the children and the infirm that, animated by the 
same sjjiric, hastened to the Avar? Who shall count the old men and the young 
maids who hui'ried forward to the fight? — not "v/ith the hope of aiding, but for 
the croAvn of martyrdom to be lyon anaid the sTvords oj' the infidels — — — 
The poor harnessing their oxen to two-^vheeled carts, in which they placed 
their scanty provisions and tlieir young cliildren ; and proceeding onward, while 
the babes, at each town or castle that they saAV, d.emanded eagerly -whether that 
was Jerusalem " — Description of the Eirst Crusade, by an Ete-witness 



FRANCE. ^g'J' 

passed. To this succeeded a great and well-appointed armament of 
three hundred thousand men, commanded by Godfrey of Bouillon, 
Eobert of Flanders, Eobert of Normandy, son of the Conqueror, 
Hugh, the king's brother, and other lords and nobles of high renown. 
In three great divisions, they arrived in the East, where private 
ambition and private conquests soon allured many of the leaders 
from the sanctified undertaking in which they had embarked. A 
portion, under Baldwin and the two Eoberts, at length, in 1099, 
arrived imder the walls of Jerusalem, which they took by storm, 
after a fierce resistance. Godfrey was chosen king of Jerusalem, 
and assumed a crown of thorns, with the title of "Defender of the 
Holy Sepulchre." The greater part of the Crusaders then returned, 
leaving for the defence of their conquest two associations of military 
monks — the Knights Templars, and the Knights Hospitallers, or 
Knights of St. John. The work, however, was not completed. The 
Mahom^etans finally regained possession of the Holy City; and 
though seven crusades were afterwards sent against them, retained it, 
as they continue to do to this day. 

Meanwhile, the king, abandoned to sensuality, relinquished the 
cares of government to his son Louis, a prince of just intentions 
and amiable temper. He died in 1108, after a useless and feeble 
reign of fifty years, leaving to his heirs the kingdom of France, 
hardly larger than some of its present departments. 

Under his son Louis YL (called the Fat) it began, however, to 
increase in territory, wealth, and importance. Much of this improve- 
ment was due to the protection extended oyer artisans and merchants, 
who were granted charters for mutual defence and municipal govern- 
ment. As these classes increased in wealth, their taxes enriched 
the royal treasury. The arts and sciences improved ; and commerce, 
secure from the depredations of the nobility, flourished to an extent 
before unknown. Such was the foundation of those powerful civic 
corporations which afterwards exercised such influence in the 
government of the nation. 

Louis was soon engaged in war with his powerful vassal Henry L 
of England; and, at the instigation of the latter, the emperor of 
Germany also commenced hostilities against France. It was found 
necessary to raise the oriflamme^ or sacred national banner, around 
which a large army instantly rallied, and compelled the invader to 
retreat. In 1137 the king died, deeply lamented by the subjects whom 
he had governed justly, and whose condition he had greatly improved. 



458 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

During liis reign, literature, sucli as it was, made considerable 
progress, and tire wandering Troubadours or Provencal minstrels, 
diffused a general taste for song and poetry. The celebrated 
Abelard gave lessons in philosophy, and was listened to by atten- 
tive crowds. 

Louis VII., who succeeded his father, was a prince of strong 
feelings, but moderate abilities. While engaged in war with Thi- 
bault of Champagne, his powerful and rebellious vassal, a calamitous 
incident occurred, which wrought strongly on his imagination and 
conscience The church of Vitry, in which great numbers had taken 
refuge from his assault, was set on fire, and thirteen hundred of the 
unfortunate citizens perished in the flames. Overcome with remorse, 
the king vowed a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; which, by the zeal and 
eloquence of Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, was converted into another 
crusade. An expedition of two hundred and fifty thousand men, 
which he led into Palestine, failed to accomplish the undertaking ; 
and of this great multitude, very few ever regained their native 
country. The king returned in disgrace, and was met by the 
universal reproaches of his subjects. 

His wife Eleanor, whom he divorced, immediately married the 
duke of Normandy, (afterwards Henry II. of England,) and her 
large continental possessions were thus added to the crown of Eng- 
land. After a reign of forty-seven years, much of which was passed 
in unimportant wars with England, the king died, in 1180 and was 
succeeded by his son Philip II. 

This prince, afterwards called Philip Augustus, was the ablest 
monarch who had ruled the French since the days of Charlemagne. 
He maintained a standing army, and gradually changed the govern- 
ment from an almost nominal sovereignty into an absolute monarchy. 
The city of Paris was greatly enlarged and improved during his 
reign, and was surrounded by a strong wall. Commerce was encour- 
aged and facilitated. He was a patron of letters, and encouraged 
the writers of romances and of marvellous tales, which then, as at 
our own day, constituted the most popular department of literature. 

The policy of Philip was of rather a low and tortuous character. 
He gratified his jealousy of Henry II. by supporting his sons in 
their unnatural rebellion. Eichard, the eldest, assumed the crown 
on the death of his father, in 1189, and entered into an agreement 
with Philip for a fresh crusade. After much delay, the two mon- 
archs, mutually jealous of each other, sat down before the strong 



FKANCE. 



459 



city of Acre, the key of the East. In storming this place and in 
his encounters with Saladin, the chivalric sultan of Egypt, Ei chard 
acquired, by his desperate valour, the name of Coeur de Lion, by 
which he has ever since been distinguished. Philip soon took his 
departure for France, taking a solemn oath that he would commit 
no hostilities in the absence of Eichard — an oath from which he 
treacherously but vainly besought the Pope to release him. Never- 
theless, learning that Eichard was captive in Germany, he made an 
attack upon his Norman possessions. 

In the fourth crusade, which succeeded, Philip refused to proceed 
to the Holy Land in person ; but levied taxes to forward the enter- 
prise. Great numbers of his subjects embarked in the new expedition, 
which was headed by Baldwin, count of Flanders. Joining their forces 
with those of Venice, under Dandalo, the blind and venerable doge 
they were diverted from their purpose by a new enterprise, the con- 
quest of the Greek empire. Constantinople was taken, and Baldwin, 
in 1204, being chosen emperor, founded a new dynasty in the East. 

John, who succeeded Eichard in 1199, murdered his nephew 
Arthur, the lineal heir to the throne, whose cause had been espoused 
by Philip. The French king, pleased with the opportunity, sum- 
moned John, as his vassal, to trial for this crime ; and on his refusal 
to attend, declared his fief of Normandy forfeited. The weak and 
wicked monarch could oppose no effectual resistance. Normandy 
reverted to the crown of France, and his provinces of Maine, Anjou, 
and Touraine were speedily wrung from him by conquest. A large 
army was also prepared, at the request of the Pope, for the invasion 
and conquest of England; but on the submission of John, the pon- 
tiff issued his commands for its disbandment, greatly to the 
mortification of the French monarch, who easily perceived himself 
the tool of this domineering and unscrupulous churchman. 

Philip, thus far highly successful in his ambitious schemes, was 
next exposed to the attack of a formidable confederacy. England, 
Flanders, and Germany were united against him, and with an army 
of fifty thousand men, he encountered the confederates, of an over- 
whelming force, at Bouvines, on the 27th August, 1214. After a 
most desperate battle, in which Philip was dragged from his horse, 
and exposed to the greatest danger, he won a complete victory. It 
seems to have been customary for ecclesiastics to engage in warfare, 
and on this occasion, the warlike bishop of Beauvais, armed with 
an iron mace, or club, did great execution among the enemy. 



460 THE PEOFLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

A severe persecution, occasionally afterwards renewed, was carried 
on against the Albigenses, a sect of Christians in Languedoc, and the 
most atrocious cruelties were committed. An unsuccessful enter- 
prise, under Prince Louis, to gain the throne of England, and an 
equally futile crusade, despatched into Egypt, were the last import- 
ant movements under the reign of Philip. He died in 1223, in the 
fifty-eighth year of his age, and the fourth of a reign in "which the 
strength and territory of France had been extraordinarily increased. 

Louis VIII., who ascended the throne on the death of his father, 
was thirty-six years of age, and feeble both in mind and body. 
During his brief reign of three years, he waged war with Henry III. 
of England, and carried on a bitter persecution against the Albi- 
genses. While engaged in the latter, he died in 1226, of a fever 
which carried off great numbers of his soldiers. 

His queen, Blanche, who became regent and guardian of her son, 
Louis IX,, was a woman of great energy and kindly disposition, 
though rash and arbitrary. She maintained the rights of the throne 
until it was occupied by the king, at his majority. This monarch, 
called from his piety St, Louis, was of a remarkably just and reli- 
gious disposition, though enslaved by the bigotry of his times. In 
the year 1244, while in a trance, he received, as he imagined, a 
divine command to assume the cross. Four ^^ears afterwards he 
sailed to Egypt with a gallant armament, seized the town of Dami- 
etta, and advanced towards Cairo. The expedition was, however, 
defeated by an inundation of the Nile ; his troops perished of pesti- 
lence; and in April, 1250, he was compelled to surrender himself 
and the remains of his army as prisoners to the sultan of Egypt. 
He finally regained his liberty by payment of an immense ransom, 
and, after an absence of four years, returned to France, Here he 
applied himself to the more truly religious task of redressing abuses 
and administering equal justice to his subjects. The "Parliament 
of Paris," a grand council of all the principal persons in the king- 
dom, was now constituted as a "High Court of Appeals." 

In July, 1270, the king, attended by many of his nobles, had the 
folly to embark in another crusade ; and first effected a landing in 
Africa, enthusiastically hoping to convert the infidel king of Tunis. 
Pestilence, however, caused by the excessive heat, broke out in his 
camp, and this generous, but misdirected monarch fell a victim to it, 
after a virtuous, though bigoted reign of forty-four years. 

His son Philip III. (surnamed the Bold) was a prince of excellent 



FEANCE. ^Ql 

disposition, but of very inferior abilities. His barber, or physician, 
Pierre le Brosse, bad gained ahuost complete influence over his mind, 
and even tried to effect, by false accusations, the ruin of the queen. 
His falsehoods and treasonable designs being detected, however, he 
was finally condemned and executed. 

The French invaders had for a considerable time kept possession 
of Sicily, and exercised much cruelty upon the inhabitants. A most 
terrible conspiracy was organized for their destruction. The plot, 
although known to numbers, was kept secret for years, and the 
intended victims were perfectly unsuspicious. At length, on Easter- 
day, 1282, at the tolling of the vesper-bell, the inhabitants rose 
throughout the island, attacked their enemies by surprise, and slew 
them all, with a single exception. 

An expedition which Philip undertook for the conquest of Arra- 
gon, was disconcerted by the loss of his fleet, which was destroyed 
or captured by Andrew Doria, the great Genoese admiral; and 
shortly after, in 1285, the king expired, after a reign of fifteen 
years, during which the French nation had enjoyed an unusual 
amount of happiness and prosperity. 

His son Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, next ascended the throne. 
Some of the most barbarous and perfidious acts on record soon dis- 
graced his reign. The new sovereign was by no means deficient 
in ability, especially in craft and cunning; but he was avaricious, 
unprincipled, and outrageously cruel. He was soon engaged in war 
with England, and, by treachery, gained some advantages. He 
entrapped the earl of Flanders by an invitation, imprisoned him at 
Paris, and despatched a force of fifty thousand men against his terri- 
tories. These, however, met with such a terrible defeat at the hands 
of the Flemish citizens, that, after the battle, four thousand golden 
spurs, the badges of knighthood, were collected on the field. The 
king, however, was now in alliance with Edward of England, who 
had married his sister Margaret, and was enabled to turn his 
resources against them, and in turn to gain the advantage. 

Covetous of the wealth of their order, he next instituted a most 
atrocious persecution against the Knights Templars. Finding that 
he was unable legally to destroy the institution, he gave orders for 
the arbitrary arrest of all its members who were in the kingdom. 
Their property was confiscated, and many of them were subjected to 
the most cruel tortures, to extort a confession of pretended crimes. 
Jacques de Molay, the Grand Master, who hastened from Cyprus to 



462 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

defend the reputation of liis Order, was, after a villanous mockery 
of trial, burned alive, by especial order of tbe king. Tlie Pope, 
who had at first protested against these atrocities, readily connived 
at them, on receiving a share of the spoils. 

Although, by oppressive taxes, the king had completely alienated 
his people, yet by way of depressing the nobility, he admitted them 
to a voice in the general assembly; and the States General were 
afterwards composed of the clergy, the nobility, and the deputies of 
the people, 

Philip died in 1314, from a fall received while hunting, in the 
forty-sixth year of his age, and the twenty-ninth of his reign. 

He was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis X., called Hutin (the 
Peevish), who left the control of government to his uncle, Charles 
of Yalois. He died after a reign of nineteen months, chiefly 
remarkable for the emancipation of the serfs, whom he compelled 
to purchase their freedom, to replenish his exhausted treasury. 

His brother, Philip Y., came to the throne in 1316, and after an 
unimportant reign of six years, was succeeded by his younger 
brother, Charles IV., at whose death, in 1328, the crown, in default 
of male heirs, passed to Philip, son of Charles of Yalois. The 
direct line of Capet thus came to an end, after retaining the throne 
for more than three centuries. 



THE HOUSE OP VALOIS. 

Philip YI., surnamed (why, it would be hard to say) the For- 
tunate, received the crown at the age of thirty -four, and was soon 
called upon to defend it from the impudent and unreasonable claims 
advanced by Edward III., king of England. Although the preten- 
sions of Edward, derived from his mother, a daughter of Philip lY., 
were rendered null by the Salic law, and even if that law were 
non-existent, were inferior to those of another branch, yet he obsti- 
nately persisted in assuming the title and arms of the king of France 



FEANCE. 



463 



— a piece of folly whicli the sovereigns of England, until very 
recently, have all imitated. 

Edward and his son, the famous Black Prince, with a large army, 
landed in France. On the 23d of August, 1346, was fought the 
battle of Crecy (Cressy), in which the superiority of the English 
archers secured them a complete and terrible victory. More than 
thirty thousand of the French perished in this disastrous conflict, 
including a vast number of knights, nobles, and all the flower of 
French chivalry. Edward immediately laid siege to Calais; and 
the unfortunate inhabitants, after bravely resisting for more than a 
year, were reduced to the greatest suffering from famine. The town 
was finally compelled to surrender, and the lives of the citizens 
were saved by the heroic conduct of Eustace de St. Pierre, who, 
with five of his fellow-burgesses, offered their lives as a ransom for 
the rest. They were spared, with much reluctance, at the inter- 
cession of Philippa, Edward's queen. At length, after France had 
been terribly devastated, and in parts almost depopulated, a peace 
was concluded. 

Soon afterwards, in 1350, Philip died, in the fifty-seventh year of 
his age, and the twenty-third of his reign. During his time, the 
province of Dauphiny had been ceded to the French territories, in 
consideration that the king's son should always bear the title of the 
"dauphin." John, his eldest son, at the age of forty, ascended the 
throne, and the war with England was soon revived. Prince 
Edward, who had led a small army from Gascony, was ravaging the 
country, and John with an immensely superior force, attacked him at 
Poictiers. But the English position was strongly fortified ; a sudden 
panic seized the French ranks; and the contest resulted in a victory 
for the English, as brilliant, though less bloody, than that of Crecy. 
The king and his son Philip, being taken prisoners, were treated 
by the victor with the utmost respect and courtesy, and were carried 
to London. 

The condition of France, left without a ruler, was now wretched 
in the extreme. The nobles, attempting to reduce the people again 
to a condition of serfdom, committed the most atrocious cruelties ; 
and the peasantry, driven to desperation, commenced a furious 
attack on their oppressors. The castles of the nobility, in many 
places, were pillaged, and their inmates ravished and massacred. 
This Jacquerie^ as it was called, from Jacques Bon Homme, (Jack 
Goodfellow, a favourite leader,) became so formidable that all parties, 



464 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

English, and Frencii, united to put it down, and it was finally sup- 
pressed, with immense slaughter. 

The dauphin, who, during the captivity of his father, held the 
regency, was unable to procure the extortionate sums whicli were 
demanded for his ransom; and King Edward, with a large array, 
marched to the very walls of Paris. A terrible storm of thunder 
and lightning, however, had such an effect upon his superstitious 
mind, that he consented to a peace, renouncing his pretensions, and 
agreeing to release King John on the payment of certain stipulated 
sums. John was set free, and returned to his own country, but 
found himself unable, from the poverty of the nation, to complete 
his engagements. Therefore, declaring that if good faith were 
banished from every other place, it should at least be respected in 
the words of a king, he returned in the most honourable manner to 
his captivity, and died a prisoner in England, April 8th, 1364. He had 
reigned fourteen years, marked by bravery, honour, and misfortune. 

Charles V., called the Wise, was already distinguished for his 
abilities and intellectual accomplishments. He was fond of the 
company of literary men, among whom the celebrated Petrarch 
conversed with him, and admired his taste and learning. The royal 
library, which in his father's day had consisted of twenty volumes, 
he increased to nine hundred. It is, at present, the largest in the 
world, containing more than a million of volumes. Several works 
of great interest were written during his reign, of which the chroni- 
cles of Froissart are the most important. By order of the king, 
many of the Greek and Latin classics were translated into French, 
indifferently enough, it is true. The university of Paris was already 
thronged with students from almost every nation of Europe. 

His political abilities were also great. He regained the province 
of Guienne from the English, his brave Constable, Du Guesclin, carry- 
ing all before him. This renowned knight died while besieging a 
certain castle; but so great was the respect felt for him even by his 
enemies, that in accordance to agreement, the fortress surrendered, 
and the keys were solemnly laid upon his bier by the governor. 

Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, had long disturbed the French 
nation by his treachery and enmity; and finally filled the measure 
of his crimes by administering a slow poison to Charles, his relative 
and fellow-sovereign. Under the influence of this cruel potion, 
lie lingered for a time, and finally expired in 1380, at the age of 
forty- four, having reigned sixteen years. 



FEANCE. 



465 



Charles VI. (the "Well Beloved"), at the age of thirteen, came 
to the throne, the duke of Anjou being appointed regent. The 
latter, a selfish and ambitious man, took advantage of his power to 
attempt the gaining a kingdom of his own. Seizing the public 
treasure, and assembling a large army, he marched into Italy, where 
Joanna of Naples had bequeathed to him her possessions. His force 
was, however, almost entirely cut off, and he survived but a short 
time the destruction of his ambitious hopes. 

The duke of Burgundy succeeded to the regency, and in 1386 
planned a formidable invasion of England. Nine hundred vessels 
were prepared, but the expedition was dispersed by a storm, and 
rendered incapable of effecting its object. The king, who, on his 
coming of age, in 1388, assumed the government, gave promise, by 
his wise and equitable measures, of an excellent reign. Unfortu- 
nately, exposure to the sun brought on a furious attack of insanity ; 
and when he had partially recovered, a terrible accident which 
befell several of his noble companions occasioned a renewal of his 
disorder. For thirty years, during which this unhappy monarch 
reigned nominally, he had only occasional glimpses of reason, and 
was treated with brutal neglect by his queen, Isabella of Bavaria, 
who kept possession of his revenues. 

In the latter part of his reign, Henry Y. of England, seeing the 
defenceless state of the kingdom, again advanced the absurd claim 
of Edward III., and invaded France with a large army. After 
ravaging the country far and near, he encountered the French, of 
greatly superior force, near Agincourt, on the 26th '=^^ October, 1415. 
The latter, attacked upon disadvantageous ground, and exposed to 
the galling fire of the English archery, were entirely defeated, and 
great numbers of them perished. 

Henry, who, on account of the mortality from disease in his army, 
had been compelled to return to England, soon recommenced the 
war, and in a short time gained possession of all Normandy. Over- 
awing the feeble opposition of the French nobles, he was declared 
regent of the kingdom, and successor to the crown; the imbecile 
king being made to assent publicly to this arrangement. Henry, 
having been crowned at Paris, died soon afterwards, leaving the 
duke of Bedford regent of France. The unhappy king himself 
expired in 1422, at the age of fifty-five, after a reign of forty-two 
years, mostly passed in insanity. 

During his reign, a curious instance of the trial by ordeal occurred. 
30 



466 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

A man named Aiibry had been murdered by nis enemy, Eobert 
Macaire, and the corpse bad been buried in tbe forest of Bondi. 
Tbe dog of the murdered man, who had witnessed the crime, brought 
a friend of his master, and showed him the body. Meeting Mac- 
aire, he attacked him furiously, and by continually exhibiting his 
enmity, awakened suspicion. The murderer avowed his innocence, 
and it was resolved to refer the matter to Providence by a public 
fight between the dog and the accused. The man was allowed a 
club, and the dog was provided with a barrel for shelter when 
weary. After a long and desperate contest, the criminal was over- 
come by his brute antagonist, confessed the crime, and was executed. 
The game of cards, since so universal, was invented in the reign 
of Charles, to divert his mind, in the melancholy complaint to which 
he was so long subjected. 

On his death, the dauphin was at once proclaimed king, by the 
few loyal nobles who remained with him, under the title of Charles 
YII. He was crowned at Poictiers— Eheims, the ancient place of 
coronation, being in possession of the English. His fortunes, how- 
ever, appeared desperate ; when, in 1428, an extraordinary event 
came to his relief Joan, the daughter of a poor peasant, Jacques 
DArc, residing at Domremy, began, at the age of thirteen, to imagine 
herself inspired. She saw visions of saints and angels, and heard 
them exhorting her to repair to the deliverance of her country. By 
frequent exercise, she had become accustomed to riding on horse- 
back and other manly exercises, and at the age of seventeen repaired 
to Charles, and informed him of her divine mission. A commission 
of ecclesiastics was appointed to examine her claims; and, either 
convinced of the reality of her inspiration, or aware of the political 
value of her enthusiasm, they solemnly reported in favour of the 
truth of her pretensions. Arrayed in complete armour, and mounted 
on a splendid gray charger, she repaired to Orleans, which was then 
closely besieged by the English. She was received with the highest 
religious enthusiasm, and, leading the troops in person, commenced 
an energetic warfare with the English. They were, on almost every 
occasion, defeated ; great numbers of them, struck with a religious 
awe, deserted ; and Talbot, the English commander, was compelled 
to raise the siege. Other successes followed, and Charles, according 
to her prediction, was soon enabled to enter Eheims victoriously, 
and be solemnly crowned after the manner of his ancestors. She 
then entreated permission to retire to her home, afl&rming that her 



FEANCE. 



467 



mission was accomplislied. The king however, desirons of availing 
himself of her services during the remainder of the war, would not 
assent. Her family was enriched and ennobled, and she recom- 
menced her exploits. 

At length, being treacherously deserted in a skirmish by her 
companions, who were jealous of her superior renown, she fell into 
the hands of the duke of Burgundy, who sold her for a large sum 
to the duke of Bedford. The English meanly resolved to avenge 
themselves on this woman, before whose arms they had so often fled. 
A commission of priests and others, headed by the infamous 
French bishop of Beauvais, was appointed to try her on a charge of 
sorcery. She was convicted, and, to the eternal dishonour of all 
concerned, and especially of Charles, was burned as a witch in the 
market-place of Rouen on the 30th of May, 1431. Many of those 
who, according to the superstition of the times, had believed in her 
guilt, on witnessing the constancy and piety of her end, were struck 
with remorse, and went away^ exclaiming, in anguish, "We are lost! 
a holy person has been burned." 

This cruel and cowardly act availed the English little. They lost 
city after city, and were speedily driven out of all France, except 
Calais. Charles, after an absence of seventeen years, reentered his 
capital, in November, 1437. In the following year a dreadful fam- 
ine and pestilence laid waste the country ; and it is said that wolves 
roved through the deserted streets of Paris. 

In 1440, peace was concluded, and the duke of Orleans, the 
king's cousin, who had been a prisoner in England for twenty-five 
years, returned to his country. His son afterwards became king of 
France. The latter days of King Charles were much disturbed by 
the rebellious and unnatural conduct of the dauphin, an odious 
wretch, who afterwards, under the title of Louis XI., so long tyran- 
nized over the French nation. He had taken refuge with the duke 
of Burgundy, but still continued his machinations against the life of 
his father. The unhappy monarch, continually dreading poison, 
refused to take food, and thus, it is said, perished of starvation, in the 
year 1461. He had lived fifty-eight years, and reigned thirty-nine. 

Louis, supported by his powerful ally and vassal, the duke of 
Burgundy, after being crowned at Rheims, proceeded to Paris, and 
assumed the government. His disregard of their order excited dis- 
content among the nobles, and a powerful league was formed against 
him, headed by the dukes of Berri and Br^tagne, and Charles, the 



468 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Count of Charalois, son of Burgundy. A large army was assembled 
by the malcontents ; but by liberal and politic promises, be contrived 
to break up the confederacy. 

He soon found himself in a more perilous condition. Charles, 
who had succeeded his father in the powerful principality of Bur- 
gundy, was a man of fiery courage and ungovernable passions. It 
was agreed that Louis and himself should hold a personal conference 
at Peronne, a town of Burgundy; and the former, with but few 
attendants, came thither, and was lodged in the castle. During their 
interview, news came that the people of Liege, a town of Flanders 
belonging to Burgundy, had been excited to insurrection by the 
emissaries of Louis. The duke, terribly incensed, made him pris- 
oner on the spot, and for two days remained in a state of furious 
agitation, unable to decide upon his execution. At length, by the 
influence of his chief ofl&cers, who were in the pay of the captive 
monarch, he spared his life, though upon humiliating conditions ; and 
the king, compelled to accompany Charles to Flanders, was forced 
to witness and sanction the indiscriminate execution of those whom 
he had incited to revolt. 

Edward lY. of England, a warlike and ambitious princC; entered 
France, by his port of Calais, in 1475, with a large army, and laid 
claim to the crown. By a dexterous use of bribery, the politic 
Louis was, however, enabled to purchase peace, and the two mon- 
archs held a personal interview upon a bridge, with a strong grating 
between, to prevent treachery. Through this cautious obstacle 
they managed to embrace, held a conference, and separated upon 
friendly terms. 

The duke of Burgundy, attempting to conquer Switzerland, 
experienced two terrible defeats from the brave mountaineers. 
After the battle of Morat, the remains of his slaughtered army 
were heaped into a huge pyramid, as their only burial. 

" Here Burgundy bequeathed his tombless host, 
A bony heap, through ages to remain, 
Themselves their sepulchre." 

A portion of this fatal mound remained until recently, though much 
diminished by the pious care of the Burgundians, all of whom pass- 
ing that way, carried home some relics of their countrymen. Charles 
himself soon afterwards lost his life, by treachery or violence, while 
besieging the town of Nancy. 



FKANCE. 



469 



Louis publicl}'- gave thanks for the death of the duke, and imme- 
diately seized his territories; the people, worn out bj disastrous 
wars could offer no resistance, Edward IV. was dead, and Louis 
now seemed at the height of his power; yet he was utterly miser- 
able. Aware of the hatred of his people, whom he had terribly 
oppressed, he immured himself for life in the castle of Plessis, 
which was strongly fortified and guarded by his Scottish archers. 
Here, surrounded by gibbets, on which his unhappy subjects were 
suspended, he led an unenviable life, governing by his barber and 
his executioner, and vainly trying to ward off the approach of death 
by collecting a great quantity of relics. The Pope sent him many 
articles of this nature; and even the Grand Turk considerately 
despatched a supply; but all in vain, for he expired in August, 
1483, after an odious and oppressive reign of twenty-two years. 

During this time, however, either by bequest, purchase, or con- 
quest, nearly all the important principalities in the limits of the 
ancient kingdom had come into the hands of the sovereign, whose 
power and independence were thus wonderfully increased. 

His son Charles VIIL, who, on account of his father's jealousy, 
had hitherto been deprived of all means of improvement, was of a 
most excellent and amiable disposition, but deficient in judgment 
and sagacity. As he was only fourteen, his guardianship, by the 
will of Louis, was conferred on his eldest sister. Her authority was 
confirmed by the States General, and the duke of Orleans, who had 
opposed her, fied to Bretagne. War was hereupon commenced 
against that province ; Orleans was taken prisoner, and closely con- 
fined; and Charles secured the dukedom by marrying the Princess 
Anne, its sole heiress. 

Charles of Anjou had bequeathed to Louis his claim upon Naples, 
and the young king, anxious to acquire military glory, in 1494, 
set out for Italy, with eighteen thousand men. Proclaiming himself 
the enemy of the Italian tyrants, he passed triumphantly through 
the peninsula. Rome and Naples threw open their gates, and wel- 
comed him as a deliverer. "While, however, the French abandoned 
themselves to revelry and military license, a powerful confederacy 
was formed against them, consisting of the Emperor Maximilian, 
Ferdinand of Spain, and the Italian princes. Charles was com- 
pelled to return immediately, and, with only nine thousand men, 
encountered an army of more than four times his number, in the 
valley of Fornova. Leaving three thousand of the enemy dead 



470 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

upon the field, he retreated into France, and was compelled to aban- 
don his Italian conquests. 

In his domestic administration, he displayed great love of justice, 
and a desire for reform. His people, however, did not long enjoy 
the benefit of these virtues, for he expired, from the effects of an 
accident, in April, 1498, in the fifteenth year of his reign, and the 
twenty-eighth of his age. His surname of "the Courteous" indi- 
cates his amiable deportment; and no sovereign ever died more 
beloved by all with whom he came in intercourse. 



CHAPTEE I?. 

THE HOFSE OP VALOIS CONTINTTED. 

As Charles left no children, he was succeeded by the duke of 
Orleans, great grandson of Charles Y., who, at the age of thirty- 
six, ascended the thrOne, under the title of Louis XII. Educated 
amid reverses, he had learned wisdom from misfortune; and so studi- 
ously promoted the good of his people as to receive their enthusiastic 
affection. Commerce, science, and literature were zealously encour- 
aged; taxes were lessened; and the administration of justice was 
improved. In his foreign affairs, he was at first less prudent and 
less fortunate. 

Having certain claims upon Milan, he took possession of that 
duchy and of the republic of Genoa; and then, by agreement with 
Ferdinand of Spain, despoiled the king of Naples of his territories. 
The allies quarrelled, however, about the division of their spoil; 
and Gonsalvo de Cordova, the "Great Captain," by treachery and 
military skill, secured the whole for his master, Ferdinand. 

In 1508, the celebrated Pope Julius II., one of the most able 
men that ever sat upon a throne, induced Louis, Ferdinand, and the 
Emperor Maximilian, to suspend their mutual hostilities, and turn 
their arms against the republic of Yenice, which had become formi- 
dably powerful. The Yenetians were thus despoiled of considerable 
territory. In 1510, Julius and Louis engaged in hostilities, and the 



FEANCE. ^Jl 

former was completely overcome. Two years afterwards, assisted 
by Ferdinand and the Venetians, he renewed the war; but, with his 
allies, was defeated by the French, in a great battle at Eavenna, 
and died in the following year. Leo X., another distinguished 
patron of art and letters, succeeded him. 

In 1513, Henry VIII., the youthful king of England, who had 
espoused the cause of Maximilian, assisted in defeating the French 
at Guinegate ; but in the following year Anne, the widow of Charles, 
(whom Louis had married,) dying, peace was concluded, and cemented 
by the marriage of the French king to Mary, sister of the English 
monarch. Louis did not long survive this alliance. He died Janu- 
ary 1st, 1515, in the fifty-third year of his age, after a reign of 
seventeen years. His care for the happiness of his subjects gained 
him the enviable title of "Father of his people," 

In default of direct male heirs, the crown next passed to the count 
of Angouleme, cousin of the late monarch, who became king, under 
the title of Francis L, at the age of twenty-one. This gallant and 
chivalrous prince possessed some faults natural to those of his 
temperament. He was headstrong and dissipated; and his court, 
filled with the most beautiful and sometimes frailest ladies in the 
realm, presented a striking contrast to the gravity of his predecessors. 

Milan was still the object of his desires; and in spite of the 
opposition of the Pope, the emperor, and Ferdinand, he came off 
victorious. The brave Chevalier Bayard crossed the Alps, and sur- 
prised the enemy ; Francis in person defeated the Swiss, and 
Milan submitted. 

Charles I., grandson of Ferdinand, perhaps the most able sovereign 
of his time, had inherited immense possessions, both in the old and 
new worlds. In seeking the office of emperor of Germany, which 
is elective, he found a rival in Francis. The most disastrous wars 
were incurred from this mutual jealousy. Both sought the friendship 
of Henry VIII., but Charles, gaining the first interview, and being 
nephew to Queen Catherine, gained the advantage. Nevertheless, the 
French and English sovereigns, by mutual agreement, met at a place 
near Ardres, called, from the magnificence displayed, the "Field of 
the Cloth of Gold." For eighteen days, while occasionally discussing 
graver matters, they mingled in youthful amusements, and lived in the 
greatest intimacy. Both excelled in martial sports ; but Henry, one 
day, seizing his fellow-sovereign by the collar, and provoking him 
to wrestle, received a severe fall, and was laid flat upon his back. 



472 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

The king of Spain had gained his object, and had become emperor 
under the title of Charles Y. Francis, enraged at his disappoint- 
ment, and easily finding a pretext for war, sent an army into Spain 
and another into Italy. The latter, ill-commanded, was repeatedly 
defeated and repulsed — the constable of Bourbon, the best general 
in France, remaining unemployed at home. Louisa of Savoy, the 
king's mother, and a woman of detestable character, wished to marry 
him. He rejected the proposal in such terms that the king gave 
him a blow. His possessions, under pretext of law, were soon 
stripped from him, and, eager for revenge, he entered the service of 
the emperor. The latter made him liberal promises, and he invaded 
France; but being joined by no one, was compelled to retreat. 

Francis had been for some time besieging the city of Pavia, when 
a large force, under the constable and Lannoy, came to its relief 
On the 23d of February, 1525, a desperate battle was fought, in 
which Francis, after displaying great personal valour, was iitterly 
defeated, and was taken prisoner. He wrote to his mother the 
celebrated despatch, "Madam, all is lost, except honour." The 
emperor, demanding unreasonable terms, kept his rival close prisoner 
for a year, during which he had nearly died from confinement and 
inquietude. He finally accepted the emperor's conditions, and was 
released, leaving his two sons as hostages; but, on regaining his 
dominions, dishonourably refused compliance, alleging that the 
promises of a captive were not binding. 

In these desolating wars fell the brave and honourable Chevalier 
Bayard, "the knight without fear and without reproach," He was 
considered, in his own day, as ever since, the model of pure chiv- 
alry, and the king himself besought knighthood at his hand on the 
field of battle. Finding him mortally wounded, the duke of Bourbon 
lamented his fate, to which Bayard replied, "I am not to be pitied; 
but those who are fighting against their country." 

In 1529, a treaty of peace was concluded, by which Francis paid 
a heavy ransom for his sons, and married Eleanor, the emperor's 
sister. Eelieved from the anxieties of war, he devoted much atten- 
tion to literature and the fine arts. Benvenuto Cellini and other 
distinguished artists adorned his court. Palaces were rebuilt, and 
statues and paintings of high merit were produced. The climate at 
this time underwent a remarkable change, and from 1528 to 1534, 
France was under a perpetual summer. Nature, in consequence, 
experiencing no period of rest, was unable to bring her products to 



FEANCE. 



473 



maturity, and a terrible famine was the result. This, and the usually- 
attending pestilence, carried off a fourth of the inhabitants of France. 

The war with Charles was renewed in 1536, and continued for 
eight years, during which the emperor was generally assisted by 
Henry. Peace was concluded in 1544; and three years afterwards 
Francis, who had been ill for a long time, expired, on the 31st of 
March, 1547, in the fifty-third year of his age and the thirty-second 
of his reign. The courage and magnificence of this king delighted 
the French nation, ever fond of glory and display; and he has 
always been an especial favourite of their historians. 

His son Henry II. succeeded, and with his queen, Catherine de 
Medicis, was entertained, on their public entry into Paris, among 
other amusements, with the execution of several heretics ; — a dread- 
ful spectacle, which so affected the king, that he never entirely 
recovered from the shock. In 1555, the Emperor Charles V., so 
long the enemy of France, voluntarily resigned his immense posses- 
sions to his son Philip II., and retired into a convent. The Pope, 
being at enmity with Philip, sought the aid of Henry, who des- 
patched the duke of Guise, with a powerful force, to attempt the 
conquest of Naples. He was, however, unable to accomplish any 
thing; and Philip, on learning of the movement, invaded France 
with fifty thousand troops. The duke of Savoy, their commander, 
laid siege to St. Quentin, and on the 10th of August, 1557, the 
French, commanded by the Constable Montmorenci and Admiral 
Coligni, suffered a terrible defeat. The incapacity of Philip alone 
saved France from greater misfortunes. In, January, 1558, the town 
of Calais, which had long been the only foothold of the English in 
France, was taken by the duke of Guise, in a sudden and daring 
attack, to the great delight of the whole nation, and the correspond- 
ing discomfiture of the English. In 1559, peace was concluded, 
and was ratified by the marriage of Philip to the eldest daughter of 
Henry. The occasion proved fatal to the French monarch. In the 
tournament which was celebrated in honour of the alliance, he 
received a fatal inj ury from the lance of one of his opponents ; and 
after lingering eleven days, expired, on the 10th of July, 1559, in 
the forty-first year of his age and the thirteenth of his reign. 

His son Francis II., at the age of sixteen, came to the throne. 
His mother, Catherine de Medicis, a daughter of the most celebrated 
house of Florence, assumed the entire direction of affairs. This 
infamous woman, talented and unprincipled by nature, had been 



474 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOPvY. 

educated amid tlie dark and tortuous politics of an Italian court. 
She was naturally cruel, and Avas, moreover, a bigoted enemy of the 
reformed religion, which had now extended widely through the 
kingdom. The duke of Guise and his brother the cardinal, ardent 
Catholics, were in league with the queen; and the Bourbons, (of 
whom Anthony enjoyed the title of King of Navarre,) the opponents 
of this powerful family, were banished from court. A savage per- 
secution of the Huguenots, as the French Protestants were called, 
commenced. The courts established for the suppression of heresy 
committed such numbers to the flames, that they acquired the terri- 
ble title of ^^ Les chamhres ardentes,^^ — "burning chambers." The 
wise and admirable chancellor, I'Hopital, in vain endeavoured to 
stay these cruelties. He succeeded, however, in preventing the 
introduction of the inquisition. 

The persecuted party was too powerful to submit without resist- 
ance. Henry de Bourbon, prince of Cond^, and brother to the king 
of Navarre, was at the head of the reformed believers. The Admiral 
Coligni, and many others of high rank, were of the same persua- 
sion. Their plans for self-defence being discovered, the prince was 
condemned to lose his head. By the exertions of I'Hopital, the 
execution was delayed; and meanwhile the young king, who for 
some time had been ill, expired on the 5th of December, 1560, after 
a reign of only sixteen months. 

His brother, Charles IX., at the age of ten years, succeeded him, 
under the guardianship of Catherine. This event saved the life of 
Conde, and gave a check to the Guises ; for the queen, to counter- 
balance their influence, entered into alliance with the Bourbons, and 
effected an apparent reconciliation of the two rival families. As 
Cha-^les grew up, it became manifest that his disposition, naturally 
harsh and eccentric, had been greatly injured by evil education. The 
country was soon in a condition that might have tried a wiser and 
abler ruler. The Catholics, alarmed at the increasing number of 
the Huguenots, and the toleration extended to them, began to think 
of again resorting to force. An accidental affray, in which the duke 
of Guise was injured, brought on a devastating civil war. This 
contest, which for a long time divided France, was distinguished by 
a ferocity unusual even in civil warfare. Friendship and relation- 
ship seemed set at nought, and innumerable private massacres were 
committed. Cond4, who commanded the Huguenots, was defeated 
at Dreux, and taken prisoner by Guise, who, however, treated him 



PEANCE. 



475 



witli mucli confidence and magnanimity. The duke himself, the next 
year, 1563, fell by the hand of an assassin, and died, exhorting the 
queen to make peace between the contending parties. His wishes 
were complied with ; and the Huguenots received favourable terms. 

In 1567, the reformed party, oppressed and deceived, again took 
up arms. The Constable Montmorenci was killed early in the war, 
and on the 18th of March, 1569, Conde himself, after displaying 
great skill and valour, fell upon the field of Jarnac. His forces, 
overpowered by the enemy, under Tavannes, who were four times 
their number, were compelled to yield. At the death of Cond6, the 
prince of Beam, heir to ISTavarre, (afterwards the famous Henry IV.) 
a youth of sixteen, became the head of the reformed party. He was 
already distinguished by his intelligence, prudence, and amiable 
manners. 

In 1570, peace was concluded, and, to cement it, a marriage between 
Henry and the king's sister, Margaret, was resolved upon, "With 
the principal persons of his party, he repaired to Paris. The young 
sovereign, now king of Navarre, was married in 1572, and during 
the festivities of the occasion, a most horrible plot was matured for 
the extirpation of the Protestant party. Some of the leaders sus- 
pected treachery, and one of them said to Coligni, "I am going to 
quit Paris, because they seem too fond of us." For two years, 
Catherine and the duke of Guise (who inherited more than his 
father's hostility to the reformation) had been engaged in preparing 
this atrocious scheme: the king had been prevailed on to give his 
consent ; and their enemies had been invited to Paris for the express 
purpose of ending the matters in dispute by a general massacre. On 
the 2-lth of August, 1572, six days after the marriage, at a given 
signal, the tolling of the great bell of the palace, an indiscrimi- 
nate slaughter of the Protestants commenced. Five thousand of 
them were murdered in Paris, and at least seventy thousand in the 
provinces. The brave and venerable Admiral Coligni was killed by 
the express commands of the duke, who presided over the massacre ; 
and it is said that Charles himself fired with a musket, from his 
palace window, upon the unfortunate victims as they ran through 
the streets below. A public thanksgiving was offered for the suc- 
cess of this wholesale butchery, which occurred upon the night of St. 
Bartholomew, and has taken its name from that circumstance. Two 
millions, however, of the Huguenots, remained; and, rather than 
drive them to desperation, a peace was concluded. 



476 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

From the time of his implication in this terrible crime, Charles 
enjoyed no rest. He was continually tormented by remorse, and it 
is supposed that his fate was accelerated by a slow poison. He died 
on the 80th May, 1574, in the twenty-fourth jeax of his age, after a 
reign of thirteen years. During this disturbed and bloody period, 
it is remarkable that many improvements were effected in the laws, 
and in the administration of justice. These reforms were due to 
the untiring and benevolent efforts of the chancellor, I'Hopital, the 
most enlightened and virtuous public character of his age. 

The king's brother, Henry of Anjou, who by this event became 
heir to the throne, had been elected king of Poland, and was in that 
country at the time of Charles' death. Delighted with his new pros- 
pects, he fled from his kingdom suddenly, by night, and hastened to 
take possession of his native domains. He was now in his twenty- 
third year. His habits were exceedingly effeminate, and his amuse- 
ments childish in the extreme. His country, meanwhile, was 
distracted by the religious contests which still prevailed. The 
duke of Guise, after the peace of 1576, formed a powerful "League" 
of the Catholics to oppose the reformation. The king himself and 
Philip of Spain joined the confederacy; and in the war which ensued, 
the Huguenots were compelled to resist a most powerful combina- 
tion of enemies. Henry of Navarre was now the next heir to the 
throne, and the Catholics were filled with alarm, on account of his 
religion and his talents. The ambitious and powerful duke of Guise 
was, however, the most influential person in the kingdom, and his 
popularity and his evident designs on the throne excited the king's 
jealousy. On his arrival at Paris he was received with such enthu- 
siasm by the citizens, that Henry resolved to secure himself from 
further trouble by assassination; and accordingly the duke, being 
summoned to attend the royal council, was murdered in the halls of 
the palace, by the king's emissaries. His brother, the cardinal, 
perished in the same manner, the next day. 

The "League," enraged at this atrocity, took up arms, and the 
Sorbonne, the great ecclesiastical tribunal, declared that the king 
had forfeited the throne. With some difficulty, he obtained the sup- 
port of the king of Navarre, who, with a considerable army, came 
to his assistance. In 1589, they appeared with a large army before 
Paris; but the alarm of the citizens was relieved by an unexpected 
event. A fanatical monk, named Jacques Clement, instigated by 
the League, having gained an interview with the king, stabbed him 




French (Jostutrie, 

IN THE REIGN OF LOUIS XI 



i'rench CosLuu-Le, 

IN THE RETRN OP LOUIS VI. 




French Costume, 

IN THE BEIGN OF LOUIS XIll 



French Costume, 

OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTtFRT 



FEANCE. 



477 



mortally. He died, bequeathing his crown to Henry of Navarre, 
and entreating him to embrace the Catholic faith. The news of his 
death was received with frantic joy by the Parisians, and his assas- 
sin was consecrated as a saint by the entire priesthood, the Pope 
included. With this sovereign ended the line of Yalois, which for 
two hundred and sixty-one years had ruled the kingdom. During 
these long and disastrous civil wars, the condition of France was 
wretched in the extreme. Even in time of nominal peace, fights, 
massacres, and bloody revenges were of daily occurrence, and the 
morals of the people had terribly deteriorated. Learning and 
refinement had, however, made considerable progress. The poetry 
of Eonsard, and the admirable essays of Montaigne had already 
delighted the world. Literature was more zealously pursued than 
at any former time. 



CHAPTEE?. 

THE HOUSE OF BOFRBON, HENRY IT. AND lOTTIS XIII. 

Henry IY., deservedly known in history as Henry the Great, 
did not arrive at the throne without experiencing the most formi- 
dable opposition. The League was still arrayed against him, and 
hastened to proclaim as king the Cardinal Bourbon, his uncle, under 
the title of Charles X. At the age of thirty-six, he commenced a 
successful struggle for the throne. Gay, amiable, and cheerful, he 
endeared to himself all who approached him. The peasantry espe- 
cially, for whose welfare he was always anxious, adored him, and 
when not restrained by religious bigotry or the control of their 
masters, were ready to espouse his cause. 

Though secretly desirous of assuring his title to the throne by a 
public conversion to Catholicism, he thought the time unfavourable, 
and accordingly rejected the overtures of those who, on that condi- 
tion, would have supported him. He issued, however, an edict, 
assuring support and protection to the Catholic religion, and then, 
with his few remaining followers, retreated to the coast near Dieppe. 
The duke of Mayenne, chief commander of the League, with twenty 



478 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

thousand men, marched in pursuit; Henry, with a small force of 
faithful followers, less in number than a fourth of the enemy, awaited 
him at the castle and village of Arques. By the treachery of the 
foreign mercenaries, who, under pretence of joining his little army, 
got safe within the intrenchments, he had almost sustained an entire 
defeat; but throwing himself into the midst of the fight, and per- 
forming acts of the greatest heroism, he succeeded in repulsing the 
enemy, and gained an important victory. 

Reinforced by the troops which Queen Elizabeth of England had 
despatched to the 'aid of the Protestant cause, he advanced to Paris. 
Unable to gain possession of the capital, he waged war in the prov- 
inces, and succeeded in reducing several towns. On the 14th of 
March, 1590, Mayenne, with sixteen thousand men, encountered the 
king, whose forces were greatly inferior in number, on the celebrated 
field of Ivry, Henry exhorted his faithful adherents to follow his 
white plume, assuring them that it would ever be found on the 
path to honour and victory. Leading the charge in person, and 
killing the standard-bearer of the leaguers with his own hand, he 
dispersed the enemy, and utterly defeated them. Further advan- 
tages followed, and he was soon enabled to invest the city of Paris, 
which, bigoted in the Pomish faith, stoutly withstood him. His 
compassion, in allowing provisions to enter the city, and the useless 
inhabitants to pass his lines, prevented him from reducing it ; and 
the approach of Mayenne and the Spaniards compelled him to 
raise the siege. 

Philip of Spain was anxious to secure the crown for his own 
daughter, the infanta ; but failed to carry his point with the assem- 
bled nobles, whom Henry had privately informed of his disposition to 
be converted. He was already listening to the arguments of the 
most learned Catholic divines; and in spite of the opposition of 
Spain, and of the papal legate, (who styled him a "relapsed heretic,") 
it was sufficiently evident that his heretical opinions were the only 
bar to his certain accession to the throne. 

Indeed, it had been manifest for some time that the king could 
secure peace to the country and toleration to the Huguenots only 
by embracing the Catholic religion. This piece of policy was 
advocated by Sully and other eminent men of the reformed faith ; 
and accordingly, in July, 1593, Henry made a public profession of 
his Catholicism in the Church of St. Denis. The Parisians, sallying 
in vast numbers from their .walls, crowded around him with enthu- 



FEANCE. 4Y9 

siastic joj; and lie was soon enabled to unite the kingdom in 
complete submission. 

Entering Paris on the 22d of March, 1594, he was received with 
much enthusiasm, and soon proclaimed a general amnesty; his 
former opponents, their bigotry being quieted, were charmed with 
the kindness and frankness of his manners. The miserable domestic 
wars, in which France, for thirty-seven years, had been involved, 
were thus terminated ; and the rights of the Huguenots were finally 
assured by the celebrated "Edict of Nantes," securing to them perfect 
toleration, and making them eligible to all offices of honour and dignity. 

Henry, aware of the importance of the friendship of the Pope, 
used every effort to conciliate him, and was finally solemnly acknowl- 
edged as king, and received full absolution. Mayenne and other 
obstinate leaguers, on learning this, submitted, and gave in their 
complete adhesion. The Jesuits, however, who were supposed to 
have countenanced two attempts iipon his life, were expelled from 
the kingdom. The Spaniards, who still maintained hostilities, 
were finally driven from France, and in 1598 terms of peace were 
agreed upon. 

The remainder of Henry's reign, though on the whole prosperous 
and successful, was troubled by the quarrels and treasonable schemes 
of his nobles, one of whom. Marshal Biron, was publicly executed 
as an example to the rest. He was married in 1600 to Mary de 
Medicis, but still retained that proneness to intrigue and licentious- 
ness which formed the least estimable part of his disposition. 

The king's genuine kindness of heart, and his frankness of dis- 
position, had, however, made him universally popular. He longed, 
he said, to see the day when every peasant of France should have a 
chicken in his pot. Taxes, though still high, were now paid with 
cheerfulness. An insurrection of the peasantry in Guienne was 
quelled, without sanguinary measures, by redressing their wrongs. 
Paris, which on his entry was half-deserted and ruined, sprang 
into new prosperity under his wise and liberal government. France 
had never enjoyed the prospect of such happiness and advancement. 
All these fair anticipations were destined to be disappointed. 

The king was for some time oppressed with the anticipation of 
his impending end ; he was depressed in spirits, and intimated that his 
death was near at hand. His prognostications were fatally realized. 
On the 14th of May, 1610, while passing in his carriage slowly 
through a crowd, an assassin, named Eavaillac, inspired by fanati- 



480 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

cism, leaped upon the wlieel, and stabbed bim twice in tbe breast. 
He survived but a brief time, and expired amid the heartfelt 
lamentations of the whole kingdom. He was in the fifty-seventh 
year of his age and the twenty -first of his reign. The murderer 
was put to death with the most studied and barbarous tortures. 

His eldest son, Louis XIII., was, at the age of nine, proclaimed 
king, and the regency conferred on his mother, the king's widow, 
Mary de Medicis. She was a liberal patron of arts and letters, but 
was unfit to govern, and confided all her power to an Italian adven- 
turer, whom she raised to the title of Marquis D' An ere and marshal 
of France. The nobility, enraged at his insolence, resolved on his 
destruction; and de Luynes, the companion of the young king, now 
at the age of sixteen, persuaded him to sign an order for the 
marshal's arrest. Yitry, the captain of the guard, in executing this 
warrant, maliciously shot his prisoner, whose body was soon sus- 
pended on one of the numerous gibbets which he had erected to 
overawe the people of Paris. 

De Luynes, who, by his influence with Louis, succeeded him in 
authority, was also excessively arrogant and haughty. Universal 
corruption prevailed at court, and the country was miserably mis- 
governed — murders and robberies being constant, even in the streets 
of Paris, and their perpetrators often being the servants of the 
nobility and gentry. The king, who was weak-minded and indolent, 
left every thing to his favourite, the duke de Luynes, who kept 
himself almost inaccessible to the public. At the death of the latter, 
in 1621, his place was filled by one of his confidants, Armand du 
Plessis, afterwards Cardinal Eichelieu, and for many years the real 
ruler of France. 

This extraordinary man, who was an ecclesiastic by education, 
and a soldier and politician by nature, was made a bishop at the age 
of twenty-one — a circumstance which never deterred him from 
assuming armoiir, and taking the field in person. His ambi- 
tion and vanity were both excessive, and he aspired to excel in 
every department of genius — war, statesmanship, letters, and even 
dancing — his performances in which latter branch of the fine arts 
are said to have convulsed the queen with laughter, and caused her 
to incur his mortal enmity. 

By adroit and daring measures, he completely overthrew the 
nobles who were in league against him, and made himself entire 
master of the state. He besieged and took the strong city of 



TKANCE. 4.QI 

Rochelle, the last refuge of the Huguenots, after a desperate defence, 
in which only four thousand out of fourteen thousand of its defenders 
survived. The power of the reformed faction was thus completely 
broken, and it was compelled entirely to succumb to the more 
numerous party of the Catholics. After a long and troubled admin- 
istration, during much of which France was engaged in contests 
with Austria, he expired, and with him the extensive and ambi- 
tious plans which he had formed, and but partially realized. He 
died in 1622, and the king, who had long been a mere puppet in his 
hands, followed him in May, 1643, leaving his son Louis XIV., a 
child of four years old, heir to the crown. He was forty-one years 
of age, and had reigned thirty-three. 

During this reign, the cardinal, who like Wolsey, was a magnifi- 
cent patron of art and letters, did much for the encouragement of 
science and genius. He reared a splendid palace, still the ornament 
of Paris, and founded the "Jardin des Plantes," that admirable 
institution, the most complete in the world, for the promotion of a 
knowledge of Natural History. He encouraged Corneille and Moliere, 
the latter the most brilliant name in French literature, and tried, 
but vainly, to emulate their excellence in his own writings. He also 
founded the celebrated Academy, to which, amid some folly and 
false philosophy, Europe owes so much of refinement and liberality. 



CHAPTER 7L 

THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. LOUIS XIY. AND lOUIS XV. 

By the king's will, affairs were to be administered by a council, 
the queen, Anne of Austria, having a nominal regency. Anne, 
however, usurped all the powers of government to herself and her 
favourite, cardinal Mazarin, an Italian adventurer, hated by the 
entire nation. By his supple and insinuating course, the reverse of 
Richelieu's, he, however, continued in power for many years. The 
wars kindled by the late cardinal survived him, and France, which 
for some time had been gratified by no victory of importance, soon 
81 



482 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

learned witli joy, in 1643, of the important triumpli of Eocroi, The 
Spaniards, twenty-five thousand strong, were besieging the town of 
that name, and the due d'Enghien, better known afterwards as "the 
Great Conde," marched, with inferior forces, to its assistance. By 
his skilful dispositions, and by the most extraordinary personal 
valour, he succeeded in defeating the enemy, and annihilating the 
flower of the Spanish army. This decisive action completely over- 
threw the military ascendancy of Spain, and highly animated the 
national desire of the French for military glory. In 1645 the youth- 
fal hero, aided by Turenne, gave the imperialists a severe defeat 
at Nordlingen ; and in 1 648 defeated them at Lens. 

The emperor was finally compelled, in October, to conclude the 
treaty of Westphalia, by which France gained, important acquisi- 
tions, and found herself in better condition to resist the attacks of 
Spain, which yet continued hostile. 

The cardinal, always unpopular, as a foreigner and a favourite, 
soon found a most formidable opposition, proceeding from the magis- 
tracy or parliament. Popular rights, though little understood, were 
beginning to be recognised, and the commons, debarred from hold- 
ing of&ce or honours, commenced an obstinate resistance of the 
royal edicts. The parliament, which in reality had no legislative 
power of importance, began to allege its authority to withhold 
sanction from the regal imposition of taxes. The queen Avas excess- 
ively indignant at this assumption, and Mazarin vainly sought to 
temporize. The popular party insisted on immediate reform, and 
sent in a schedule of demands, which was received with fresh indig- 
nation by the court. Elated by the victories of Conde, the latter 
resolved to suppress the obnoxious movement by violence, and six 
of the most important magistrates were arrested. Great popular 
tumults immediately succeeded. The coadjutor (afterwards bishop 
and cardinal) De Retz, a man of high talents, but of artful, intriguing, 
and seditious temper, proved a most able and formidable adviser of 
the people. Barricades were instantly thrown up in all the principal 
streets of Paris ; the troops were unable to repress the populace ; 
and the court was compelled to yield up its prisoners. Taking 
advantage of a temporary lull, the queen and her favourite, with 
all the court, fled to St, Germains, where, for a time, they were 
reduced to great straits for want of the common conveniences of life. 
The civil contest which succeeded, called the war of the "Fronde," 
though thus commencing with a question of popular rights, soon 



FRANCE. 483 

degenerated into a mere struggle for power and emolument among 
a crowd of venal and ambitious nobles. As interest prompted, tliey 
tlirew their influence into the scale of tlie cardinal or ttie popular 
party — De Retz and Cond6 themselves being no exceptions. The 
contest took its name from the "frondeurs," or juvenile slingers, who 
had been active in the first demonstration, and was rather character- 
ized by an effusion of wit and satire than of bloodshed. Many 
ladies of the first rank took an active part in the intrigues and even 
the open hostilities of this quarrel. 

In 1649 the court, which had returned to Paris, was again com- 
pelled to fly, and Cond6, with twelve thousand men, was sent to 
overawe the city. Some inconsiderable skirmishes took place, and 
peace was restored, for a time, by the admirable boldness and 
patriotism of Mole, president of the magistracy. Oond6 himself, 
who had been intriguing with the Fronde, and whose haughtiness 
displeased the court, was soon after arrested, and, to the surprise of 
all, the cardinal formed a league with De Eetz and other violent 
leaders of the insurrectionary movement. The partisans of Cond6, 
however, withstood the government in the provinces, and the parlia- 
ment insisted on his liberation. The dismission of Mazarin was 
also demanded, and the favourite, yielding for awhile to the storm, 
left the kingdom in disgrace. Cond6 was released, and might easily 
have held the highest position in the government but for his quarrels 
with De Eetz and other powerful leaders of the Fronde. The wily 
Mazarin, seeing his opponents weakened by their quarrels, soon 
returned, levied an army, and joined the queen, with whom he was 
supposed to be connected by closer ties than those of politics. By 
judicious alliances with the nobility, he greatly strengthened his 
position, and with a considerable force advanced toward Paris. 
Conde, who had been engaged in a desultory warfare with the royal 
forces, was already there. With very inferior forces, he withstood 
the attack of Turenne with the most desperate valour, and for a 
time maintained his position in the capital. The burgesses, how- 
ever, refusing to sanction his schemes, he delivered them to the 
outrage and massacre of the mob. This act so tarnished his cause 
that he was compelled to retreat. The court entered Paris in tri- 
umph; the magistracy entirely succumbed, and all the contested 
points were yielded by the parliament. Mazarin soon returned 
publicly to his post, while Conde, ruined at home, took service with 
the Spanish king, and was appointed general over his forces. His 



484 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

great rival and opponent, Marshal Turenne, commanded the French, 
and after a series of engagements, in which he was almost uniformly 
successful, compelled the enemy to ask for peace. The "treaty of 
the Pyrenees," concluded in 1659, restored peace to the two nations, 
Loiiis marrying the daughter of the king of Spain, and renouncing 
all claims to the Spanish throne. Two years afterwards, Mazarin 
died, having preserved his power by subtle and unscrupulous policy 
for nearly eighteen years. On this event, the king, at the age of 
twenty-three, took the government into his own hands; and during 
the remainder of a reign of seventy-three years, never afterwards 
relinquished the supreme control to any minister or favourite. 

The predominant quality of the young monarch was an intense 
selfishness. He was by no means destitute of abilities, though not 
brilliant; and he was served by able officers, both in war and the 
state. Colbert, the minister, had brought his finances into a flour- 
ishing condition ; and with Turenne for a general, and Vauban for 
an engineer, he commenced a system of aggrandizement at the 
expense of his neighbours. He was at first foiled by the alliance 
of several northern powers, but having succeeded in detaching 
Charles II., of England, from the confederacy, invaded Holland on 
a trivial pretext, in 1672, with a formidable army. 

The defenceless and feeble republic was soon reduced to extremity- 
It was in serious contemplation among the citizens to leave their 
country for ever, and found a new nation in the East Indian Archi- 
pelago. Peace was impossible; for nothing short of the most abject 
servitude would satisfy the victor. In this miserable state of affairs, 
the young prince of Orange, (afterwards William III., of England,) a 
man of high talents and of indomitable courage, was placed at the 
head of their government. 

Their new leader adopted the most energetic means of defence. 
The sluices were opened, and the country was laid under water; thus 
at least protecting the capital until winter should render the ice pass- 
able. In the following year Spain declared in their favour, and 
William, with the imperial forces, making a demonstration upon 
France itself, Louis withdrew his army. The following year, Charles 
was compelled by the popular feeling to relinquish his alliance with 
Louis. The latter nevertheless maintained the war, and Turenne, 
his general, although ill-supplied, carried on an energetic campaign 
against the allies. In pursuance of the savage orders of Louvois, 
the minister of war^ a large and fertile district of the frontier was 



FEANCE. 



485 



laid waste with fire and sword. At tlie field of Senef, Cond6 
engaged the Dutch and Spaniards, commanded by the prince of 
Orange, and, after a murderous encounter, in which twenty thousand 
men were left upon the field, gained a doubtful victory. Turenne, 
after exhibiting the most remarkable skill and perseverance in his 
campaign against the imperialists and other allies, was killed, in 
1766, by a cannon-shot. The war, after this event, languished, and 
few actions of importance occurred. At length, in 1678, by the 
mediation of England, a peace was concluded, at Nimeguen, leaving 
matters much as they were before the war; France, however, having 
acquired some accession of territory. During these conflicts, Louis, 
who was much fonder of the renown than of the perils or fatigues 
of warfare, had occasionally joined his armies; but for the most part 
left the weight of the campaign to his generals. He was, neverthe- 
less, overwhelmed with adulation as a second Alexander. 

The chief influence at court was that of Madame de Maintenon, 
whom the king, in 1685, two years after the death of his wife, pri- 
vately married. She was the widow of Scarron, an eminent wit, 
and a man of the most fascinating address, though terribly deformed 
and crippled in consequence of an unfortunate accident. She had 
been governess to a lady of the court, and in this situation attracted 
the attention of the king, who was charmed with her agreeable man- 
ners. She was never publicly acknowledged as queen. Louis, as 
well as his favourite, was attached in a most bigoted manner to the 
Church of Eome; and in the year 1685, Le Tellier, a fanatical 
Romanist, the father of Louvois, persuaded him to commence a 
horrible persecution of his Protestant subjects. 

Several measures of the most alarming nature had already been 
taken, and in 1685 the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, the only 
safeguard of the reformed religion, induced many to seek a home 
in lands less exposed to persecution. To check this spirit of emigra- 
tion, the severest measures were adopted; and the dragoons who 
were quartered among the unhappy Huguenots, committed the most 
fi-ightful excesses. Robbery, torture and murder left the persecuted 
sect no alternative but flight; and in attempting this, thousands 
were seized by the brutal soldiery, and underwent fresh atrocities. 
Nevertheless, it is said, not less than half a million found means to 
escape from the kingdom. 

This cruel measure inflicted an irreparable injury on France, 
The people thus forced into exile were among her most valuable 



486 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

citizens, and tliej took with them to other countries the arts and 
manufactures hitherto peculiar to herself. These unfortunate exiles 
were distributed among various nations. Great numbers took refuge 
in the southern states of America, then newly-settled colonies of 
Great Britain ; and they were every where received with kindness 
and sympathy. 

Meanwhile, an alliance between Spain, Germany, and Holland, 
had been brought about by the prince of Orange, the inveterate 
enemy of the French. In 1688, by the flight of James II., he gained 
the throne of England — a position which, however, he considered 
merely secondary to his grand plan of a European confederacy. 
France was now engaged in war with Austria, and to prevent the 
enemy from finding resources, a most barbarous measure was resolved 
on by Louis, and his minister Louvois. The beautiful palatinate 
of the Rhine had in some measure recovered from its former devas- 
tation. An army of one hundred thousand men was now sent, in 
the winter of 1688-9, with orders to reduce it to a perfect desert. 
Every thing which fire and sword could destroy, was consumed ; and 
tlie wretched inhabitants were left without food or shelter. In the 
campaigns which followed, the French, under Marshal Luxemburg, 
gained the advantage over Prince Eugene and his allies ; but at sea 
under admiral Tourville, they experienced a most signal defeat. At 
length, all parties being exhausted by war, and Louis having further 
designs, the treaty of Rj^swick was concluded in 1697, by which 
matters were left much as at the commencement of the contest. 

Louis had concluded peace only to subserve other schemes of his 
ambition. The king of Spain was dying, and the French monarch 
wished to be in a condition to assert the claims which in 1659 
he had solemnly renounced. The dying monarch, however, left his 
dominions by will to Philip, the grandson of Louis, and one of the 
direct heirs; a scheme for partitioning the kingdom had been on 
foot, but was now abandoned. 

The Emperor Leopold, whose claim was equal to that of Louis, 
aggrieved at this arrangement, commenced hostilities; and his 
armies in Italy, under Eugene, gained decided advantages over 
those of Louis under Catinat and Marshal Villeroi. The French 
monarch now provoked another enemy in England, by publicly 
acknowledging in 1701 the son of James II. as king of England, 
in compliance with a promise made to the dethroned monarch on 
his death-bed. The famous duke of Marlborough was appointed to 



FEANCE. 437 

tlie command of the allied forces, and in a series of brilliant cam- 
paigns, reduced the French to a deeply humbled condition. With 
Eugene, at the battle of Blenheim, in August, 1704, he defeated 
the French, nnder Marshal Tallard, who lost forty thousand men 
out of fifty-six thousand, with which he had commenced the 
engagement. In 1706, with sixty thousand men, he encountered 
the French, of equal force, under Marshal Villeroi, at Rami] lies. 
They again sustained a disastrous defeat, with a loss of thirteen 
thousand men. Various towns were taken; and, in 1708, Louis 
would willingly have made peace ; but the terms of the allies, elated 
by success, were too unreasonable. 

On the 11th of September, 1709, a most terrible battle was fought 
near the town of Mons, which was besieged by Marlborough and 
Eugene, and which Marshal Yillars attempted to relieve. The two 
armies, each ninety thousand strong, met at Malplaquet, and the 
allies, though losing the greater number of troops, again gained 
the advantage. 

Sir George Rooke, with an English fleet, early in the war had 
taken the strong fortress of Gibraltar, which ever since has been an 
important military and naval post of the English. 

In 1710, Louis offered great concessions, but was unable to secure 
a peace. His case seemed desperate. An army of an hundred and 
twenty thousand men, under Marlborough and Eugene, was ready 
to march into his territory; an effectual resistance could scarcely 
have been made ; and but for the defection of England, terms of 
peace might have been dictated at Paris itself. But the English 
ministry, of a Jacobite tendency, was in secret treaty with France ; 
the enemies of Marlborough procured his disgrace ; and England, 
deserting her allies, recalled her forces from the Netherlands, and 
made a separate peace. 

Eugene, left alone, was defeated by Villars at Denain; and a 
general peace was signed at Utrecht in 1713, the emperor alone 
maintaining a hostile attitude. Spain was secured to Philip, and 
other matters were left on nearly the same footing as at the com- 
mencement of the war. 

The reign, which began so brilliantly, was now drawing to an 
end in gloom and misfortune. France, by these long-continued wars, 
was reduced to the most wretched condition; and "Le grand mon- 
arque," as his flatterers delighted to call him, now seventy-six years 
old, beheld himself reduced to a condition of political weakness and 



488 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

degradation. He had also experienced great domestic affliction. 
His son tlie dauphin, his grandson, who succeeded to the title, and 
the eldest son of, the latter, were hurried in rapid succession to the 
grave, not without dark suspicions of poison. The second of these, 
Louis of Burgundy, the heir to the throne, was a prince of admir- 
able disposition, and the hope of the French nation. The duke of 
Berri, another grandson, soon followed, and the sole heirship to the 
crown thus devolved upon the infant son of Louis of Burgundy. 

On the 1st of September, 1715, Louis himself expired, not with- 
out remorse at the condition of the splendid kingdom which he had 
used only as an instrument to serve his ambition, vanity, and pleasure. 
Like some of his predecessors, he exhorted the next heir to avoid 
those selfish and oppressive measures from which he himself had 
not been able to refrain. The people, despite their love of splen- 
dour and finery, openly rejoiced at the death of their oppressor. 
He had reigned seventy-three years, and lived seventy -seven. 

During this reign, the longest in the annals of France, or per- 
haps any other nation, great improvements had taken place in 
commerce and arts, owing principally to the wise encouragement 
of his enlightened minister, Colbert. The manufactures of glass, 
silk, and carjoeting, were carried to much perfection. Internal 
improvements of high importance were commenced : and a success- 
ful commerce was opened with the East Indies. 

Louis, though without taste for learning himself, was yet, by the 
advice of his minister, and his love of adulation, a liberal patron of 
literature. The admirable Moliere, the ornament of his reign, was 
distinguished by the royal favour. The age produced many emi- 
nent writers, Eacine, La Fontaine, Montesquieu, and Fontenelle, 
are still classics in the French language. Grreat attention was paid 
to classical literature, and the best authors of antiquity were care- 
fully revised and published "in usum delphini," — for the use of the 
dauphin. The object of these attentions, however, did not take to 
them very kindly, but had rather an aversion to letters. 

In no reign have the ecclesiastics been distinguished by more 
genius and piety. Bossuet, Bourdalou.e, and especially the admir- 
able Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray, were distinguished by their 
learning, eloquence, and virtues. The latter, who was tutor to the 
dauphin, composed, for the use of his pupil, the celebrated "Telem- 
achus" giving especial precepts of wisdom and virtue for the use 
of kings. 



FEANCE, 439 

The great passion of Louis was for building, in which he squan- 
dered incredible sums, wrung from his people by taxation. His 
charming and beautifully-situated palace at St. Germains he forsook 
because it commanded a view of the church of St. Denis, where 
his ancestors were deposited, and where he must one day join them. 
At an expense of nearly a thousand millions of francs, he converted 
the marshy grounds of Versailles into a royal residence, which, it 
has been said, "might lodge all the kings of Europe." In this 
abode of grand and dignified enjoyment, every thing was regulated 
by an etiquette of the most stately absurdity. A great number of 
courtiers assembled early in the morning to behold their sovereign 
perform the ceremony of shaving and dressing, encumbered with 
the most frivolous forms and observances. He dined before a great 
crowd of the nobility, and, at night, was put to bed with cere- 
monies equally cumbrous and ridiculous. 

Louis XV. was only five years old at the death of his great grand- 
father, and the duke of Orleans, a nephew of the late king, assumed 
the regency. This singular man had naturally an excellent dispo- 
sition ; but evil education, and an irresistible turn for levity, rendered 
him morally depraved. His first measures Avere liberal and popular, 
and excited favourable hopes. His incapacity, however, soon laid 
the nation open to a terrible injury. The treasury, exhausted by 
Louis XIV., was greatly embarrassed, and an artful Scotchman, 
named John Law, proposed a scheme for its relie£ This was the 
establishment of a vast bank, the stock of which should be paid in, 
in government securities. To tickle the fancy of the Parisians, the 
new corporation was granted the exclusive privilege of trading to 
China, Senegal and Mississippi, from the latter of which it takes its 
popular name. As in the South Sea scheme of England, public 
enthusiasm rose to an enormous height. Multitudes hastened to 
invest their all in the delusive plan ; and when the bubble burst, an 
immense number were utterly ruined. The national debt had also 
been doubled. 

In 1722, the regency expired, and the king, at the age of thirteen, 
took the nominal direction of affairs; Orleans, however, still in 
reality controlling the government. The latter died in the following 
year, and was succeeded, as prime minister, by the duke of Bour- 
bon ; who, in his turn, soon surrendered his office to the Cardinal de 
Fleury, an aged, honest, and pacific ecclesiastic. His administration 
was at first distinguished by nothing of importance, except the com- 



490 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

mencement of tliose furious struggles for power between tlie Jesuits 
and their rivals, the Jansenists, which afterwards agitated the 
whole of France. In 1733, Fleurj, much against his will, was com- 
pelled to engage in war. Stanislaus, the king of Poland, (whose 
daughter Maria was now queen of France,) had been expelled from 
his throne by Austria and Eussia. An opportunity to replace him 
occurred, and, urged by the general clamour for warfare, the minister 
sent forces, under some of the old generals of Louis XIY., to aid 
him. They effected little, and after a contest of two years, the 
dispute was adjusted by granting to the dethroned prince the 
important duchy of Lorraine, which was to be added to the French 
territories at his death (1735). 

Peace now ensued for five years. In 1740 commenced a series of 
most important events, in which all Europe was soon involved. 
Frederick the Great, who had lately succeeded to the throne of Prus- 
sia, took advantage of the improteeted state of Maria Theresa, empress 
of Austria, to seize the important province of Silesia. France, 
animated by ancient hatred, also took up arms against her ; but the 
French forces in Bohemia and Bavaria were finally overpowered 
by the enemy, and compelled to retreat. In 1748, under Marshal 
Noailles, they were defeated at the battle of Dettingen by the British, 
under George II. and the duke of Cumberland. 

In 1745, Marshal Saxe, with an army of ninety thousand men, 
and accompanied by the king of France and the dauphin, laid siege 
to Tournay. The duke of Cumberland, with fifty thousand, coming 
to its relief, engaged him at Fontenoy, and after a severe and doubtful 
struggle, was compelled to retire. The capture of several important 
Flemish cities succeeded this victory. In the following year, though 
successful in Flanders, the French forces were defeated at Piacenza, 
in Italy, and driven from that country. The brilliant successes of 
Saxe, however, continued; the allies became weary of war; and, in 
1748, peace was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. No 
result of any importance to France had been attained. 

The first movements of that mighty revolution of thought, which 
afterwards changed the destinies of Europe, now began to be felt. 
Louis himself, immersed in sloth and sensuality, could not but per- 
ceive it. "The monarchy is very old," said he, "but it will last my 
time." The exciting cause of the popular change of feeling may be 
found in the contest which arose between the church and the new 
philosophers, and in the ridiculous quarrels of the church itself A 



TEANCE. 



491 



host of brilliant and eager intellects, wearied at the absurdity and 
cruelty of the French Catholic Church, sought refuge in the opposite 
extreme of skepticism and irreligion. Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, 
D'Alembert and others, skilfully exposed the failings and attacked 
the power of the ancient system. The leading clergy, as Jesuits, 
and the parliamentary faction, as Jansenists, carried on a furious and 
ludicrous warfare. The court, which favoured the former, perse- 
cuted the latter. The cruel executions of Calas, falsely accused of 
murder, and of La Barre, accused of sacrilege, greatly strengthened 
the party of those who attacked the church. 

The king, who had always been ruled by his mistresses, was now 
under the influence of Madam de Pompadour, who entirely con- 
trolled the government, and managed foreign relations, war, and 
all the most important matters of the realm. Immense sums were 
squandered by the king on his seraglio and his favourites. 

In the East, that contest for the Indian empire had commenced, 
which finally resulted in favour of England. In North America, a 
mutual jealousy, destined to end in a similar result, was already 
embroiling the colonists. Frederick had now entered into alliance 
with England, and Louis and his mistress, resenting some of his 
witticisms, in 1756 joined their fortunes to those of Austria. An 
expedition, under the due de Hichelieu, took the island of Minorca. 
Frederick opened the campaign with a brilliant victory over the 
Austrians and Saxons ; and the Seven Years' War, in which, almost 
single handed, he fought against all Europe, commenced. 

In 1757, an attempt was made upon the life of the king by a half- 
insane wretch, called Damiens. The injury to his person was imma- 
terial, and the unfortunate man was put to death by the most 
barbarous torments. 

In the same year, the French arms, under Eichelieu, were highly 
successful, and the duke of Cumberland was compelled to surrender 
Hanover. At the battle of Rosbach, however, Frederick, with a 
greatly inferior force, defeated fifty thousand French and Germans ; 
and instantly celebrated their flight with certain obscene and witty 
verses. In 1758, Clermont, who had succeeded Richelieu, met with 
a series of defeats and disasters, and was compelled to retreat into 
France. In 1759, the French again fought with disadvantage at 
Minden. The aid of Spain, which supported her, proved valueless. 
Her ships and colonies were taken by the English ; and in 1763, 
by the treaty of Paris, she ceded Canada and other provinces to 



492 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

them, certain otliers being restored to her. At the same time when 
this disgraceful peace was signed, Prussia and Austria entered into 
treaty. Frederick still held Silesia, for which more than a milhon 
of men had been vainly sacrificed. 

During this time, a fierce struggle had been going on between the 
court and clergy and the parliament. This body, which had here- 
tofore done little except to register the edicts of the king, was now 
at open issue with the high church party, and sometimes with Louis 
himself. Kemonstrances were poured in against Jesuitism and taxa- 
tion, and the refractory members were often arbitrarily committed 
to prison. It was finally broken up entirely, and the members 
exiled to different parts of the kingdom. The due de Choiseul, 
prime minister, who refused to lend his influence to the court party, 
was deprived of office, and banished to his country-seat. 

The dauphin and his wife, and the queen, had died in rapid suc- 
cession, and the son of the former, now heir to the throne, was in 
1770 married to Maria Antoinette, daughter of the empress of Aus- 
tria. The king continued to be entirely devoted to sensuality, and 
Madame du Barry, his latest mistress, held complete control over his 
political action. On the 10th of May, 1774, in the midst of the 
humiliation and discontent of his kingdom, he expired of the small- 
pox, in his sixty-fifth year, after a reign of fifty-nine years. 

Nature had gifted this monarch with singular personal advan- 
tages. He had a handsome countenance and a royal demeanour, 
but his intellect was narrow, and he was during the greater part of 
his life a slave to sensuality. No court in Europe exhibited such 
undisguised and oriental licentiousness. His seraglio, entitled the 
"Pare au Cerfs," was the scandal of Paris itself, not easily alarmed 
on the score of decorum. He left an embarrassed treasury, a wide- 
spread discontent among all classes, and a state of great indigence, 
suffering, and disaffection among the entire labouring classes. 



FEANCE. 493 



CHAPTER ?,IL 

THE HOUSE or BOURBON CONTINUED. LOUIS XVI. 

AND THE EEVOLUTION. 

The young king, at his accession to the throne, was twenty years 
of age. He was naturally feeble-minded, though conscientious ; and 
his education had been rather that of a monk than a king. The 
count de Maurepas, an aged and astiite politician, was appointed 
minister; and Turgot, an enlightened financier, was placed over the 
treasury. He at once brought forward a plan for relieving the 
people of their excessive and exclusive taxes, and for distributing a 
portion of the burden among the clergy and nobles, each of which 
bodies held a third of all the property in the kingdom. So great, 
however, was the opposition of the privileged classes, that he and 
his friend Malesherbes, also an enlightened statesman, were expelled 
from ofl&ce. 

Not long afterwards, the celebrated ISTecker was appointed in his 
place, who, by a system of continual borrowing, kept the apparatus 
of government, for a time, from stoppage. A new qiiarrel soon 
commenced with England. The French ministry had for some time 
entertained the project of assisting the North American colonies in 
their struggle with the mother-country; La Fayette and other men 
of distinction had already entered their service; and in 1778, the 
victory of Saratoga decided the court to enter into a treaty, acknowl- 
edging their independence. AVar with England followed as a matter 
of course. In 1779, an alliance was formed with Spain, and England 
beheld for the first time in an hundred years the channel scoured by 
a hostile fleet, and her sea-ports threatened with invasion. They 
failed, however, in a demonstration against Gibraltar, and several 
ships were captured by Eodney. A French army and fleet were 
despatched to the assistance of the Americans, and aided them in 
achieving important successes. The surrender of the British under 
Cornwallis, at Yorktown, in 1782, decided the event of the struggle. 
After gaining further advantages, in April, 1782, the French fleet of 
thirty-four sail, under the Count de Grasse, encountered that of Eod- 
ney, in the West Indian seas, and after a desperate fight, was utterly 



494 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

defeated, with a terrific loss of life. In the same year, a most for- 
midable attack was made upon. Gibraltar by the combined French 
and Spanish fleets. After a long and tremendous cannonade on both 
sides, the floating batteries, constructed for the siege, took fire, and 
the fortress, by its natural strength and the valour of its defenders, 
compelled its assailants to retire. 

In 1783, treaties of peace were signed by the conflicting parties ; the 
independence of the United States being acknowledged, and certain 
colonies being receded to France and Spain. 

Maurepas was dead, and Necker out of ofl&ce; the treasury was 
empty, and Calonne, who filled the place of the latter, as a last 
resort, assembled the "notables" or privileged orders. Showing 
them the condition of the public finances, he proposed that they 
should share the burden of taxation. His plan was defeated, and, 
partially for good reasons, he was driven from office ; but the agita- 
tion for reform increased. It soon became evident that the "states- 
general," whose meeting was continually dreaded by government, 
must be convoked. The king, by dismissing imnecessary officers, 
and reforming his court, sought, as far as possible, to avert the 
coming storm. The duke of Orleans, the king's cousin, an ambi- 
tious and unprinciiDled man, secretly encouraged insurrection. He 
was banished from Paris; but throughout the provinces, the people 
offered resistance to the troo^DS of government. In this extremity, 
Brienne, the minister, as a last resort, in 1788, convoked the states- 
general. Having done this, he retired from office, and Necker again 
came into power. 

It was decided that the deputies from the "third estate " or people 
should equal in number that of the nobility and clergy united. 
The two latter, by their selfish obstinacy, had heretofore defeated all 
efforts for the relief of the kingdom, and justly dreaded the day of 
reckoning which approached. On the 4th of May, 1789, this 
assembly, perhaps the most important of all national conventions, 
in its influence on the destinies of mankind, came together at Ver- 
sailles. Public expectation was raised to the highest pitch ; distress 
and famine kept the lower classes constantly on the verge of insur- 
rection, and the money and secret influence of Orleans fomented the 
disturbance. The question was first raised, whether this numerous 
body, consisting of twelve hundred members, should act and vote 
in common, or each order separately. The privileged classes insisted 
on the latter. After long disputes and ineffectual attempts at adjust- 



FKANCE. 



495 



ment, tlie commons took the bold and decisive step of assuming the 
entire legislative power to themselves, and forthwith commenced 
their action under the title of the "National Assembly." The most 
distinguished man in this celebrated body was Mirabeau, a noble by 
birth, but an ardent advocate of popular rights. He had himself 
been a victim to the infamous system of ^'lettres de cachet.''^ By 
these atrocious missives, which were simply orders from the king 
for the indefinite imprisonment of any person in the realm, hun- 
dreds had passed their lives in dreary and hopeless confinement — 
the influence of any person of high rank being generally sufficient 
to consign an obnoxious relative or inferior to a dungeon. Burning 
with revenge and patriotism, this great orator came to the assembly. 
The clergy, overawed by the daring movement of the commons, 
suffered themselves to be absorbed among them ; but the assembly, 
enraged at their accidental exclusion from the hall, (which was being 
prepared for a royal sitting^) adjourned to a tennis court, and there 
took a solemn oath never to adjourn till they had provided a 
constitution. By the influence of the courtiers, headed by the 
Comte d'Artois, (afterwards Charles X.) the king was induced, at 
the ^''sitting " referred to, to use harsh and menacing language. This 
increased the obstinacy of the deputies and the popular indignation. 
The king was compelled to follow the counsel of Necker, the popu- 
lar minister ; many of the nobility, led by the duke of Orleans, joined 
the assembly; and finally, on the 27th of June, the three "Estates" 
sat together in the same hall. 

It was too late. The populace, seeing the effect of their clamour, 
commenced to overawe the assembl}^, and successfully resisted the 
military rule. Numbers of foreign troops had been assembled at 
Versailles; and during a confused affray between the royal guards, 
the Grermans, and a popular procession, blood was spilled. On the 
14th of July, the people, who had supplied themselves with mus- 
kets and artillery from a piiblic magazine, marched in great force 
to the Bastile. This gloomy pile, for so many years the chief dun- 
geon of the French monarchs, was defended by a very small force 
of troops. The guards, with which the municipal authorities wished 
to replace its garrison, themselves joined in the attack; the prison 
was seized by the insurgents, and the commander, de Launay, Avas 
murdered. At this alarming step, the Comte d Artois and his party 
fled precipitately from the country which their pride and obstinacy 
had thus involved in a civil war. 



496 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

This event was received with transports of joj by the liberal 
party, and did much to conciliate and satisfy even the niost des- 
perate. La Fayette, a man of known probity and moderation, was 
placed at the head of the national guard, and did his best to effect 
a reconciliation of the people and the sovereign. The former were 
assured that the court perceived the justice of their cause, and for 
a brief period all was confidence and good feeling. The tri-coloured 
cockade, composed of red and blue, the colours of Paris, and 
white, that of Bourbon, was every where adopted. Still, consider- 
able turbulence, instigated, it is supposed, by Orleans, occasionally 
burst forth; and the populace hanged up to the lamp-post two 
obnoxious officers of the revenue. 

In the provinces, much greater violence prevailed; and many 
chateaux of the nobility were plundered and burned by the peasants, 
who thus revenged the accumulated wrongs and opj)ressions of many 
centuries. To conciliate these, feudal abuses were abolished by the 
assembly. The nobles and clergy also made a voluntary and open 
sacrifice, though too late, of all their privileges and exemptions. 
During two months of comparative quiet, which followed, the assem- 
bly was occupied in providing the basis of a constitution. ISTecker 
exhibited the miserable condition of the public finances, and some 
of the ultra reformers proposed to cut the Gordian knot by a national 
bankruptcy — a measure defeated by the eloquence and honesty of 
Mirabeau. Meanwhile, the constant agitation had caused a great 
scarcity of provisions, and the ignorant multitude could find but 
one remedy — to proceed to Versailles, and demand bread of the 
king. An imprudent military demonstration of the court inflamed 
this discontent into phrensy. On the 5th of October, a vast rabble 
led the way to Versailles ; the national guard, which La Fayette was 
compelled to lead, came next; and half Paris folloAved in their train. 
On the same day, as if by previous concert, Eobespierre and other 
violent revolutionary leaders started up, with fierce accusations of 
Mirabeau and others of the constitutional party. Immense numbers 
soon surrounded the assembly and the palace, demanding bread. 
Some violence occurred, and the king's body-guard was compelled 
to retire. During the night, through the culpable negligence of La 
Fayette, who had charged himself with the protection of the royal 
family, a band of ruffians broke into the palace, slaughtered a num- 
ber of the guard, who tried to oppose them, and rushed with fury 
to the chamber of the queen, who was excessively unpopular. She 



FEANCE. 497 

verj narrowlj escaped, and any further violence was prevented by 
La Fayette. The king and queen, the latter of whom showed 
unshaken courage, were compelled to accompany this vast mob to 
Paris ; the heads of their unfortunate guards being borne on pikes 
before them. 

For more than a year, tolerable quiet prevailed. The duke of 
Orleans had been compelled to retire, and the assembly proceeded 
with rash precipitancy in the work of reform. The vast amount of 
ecclesiastical property was appropriated to the state. France was 
divided into departments. The judiciary was remodelled, and titles 
of honour were abrogated. A class of violent republicans, how- 
ever, refused to be satisfied even with these sweeping measures ; and 
in the convent of the Jacobins (from which their party took its 
name) a formidable club was organized to change the government 
entirely. 

Mirabeau, who had heretofore been the staunchest supporter of 
popular reform, saw the danger toward which too precipitate legis- 
lation was hurrying the state, and used his powerful influence to 
retard further action; but this great man, who might, if he had 
lived, have saved France from the excesses which followed, expired 
from a disease of the heart, produced by long-continued excitement. 

Louis now meditated an escape from his enemies, and resolved to 
join a camp of royalists on the frontier. On the night of the 19th 
of June, the royal family secretly left Paris, and travelled rapidly 
to their destination; but, when they arrived at Varennes, were 
recognised, and compelled, by a decree of the assembly, to return. 
The anxiety of the people to retain the persons of their monarch 
and his family, was principally caused by the belief that they might 
be held as hostages in the approaching war which was menaced by 
the emperor of Austria and other European powers. An act sus- 
pending his royal functions was forthwith passed, and dethronement 
became commonly agitated. A collision soon occurred between the 
people and the authorities, in which La Fayette, commanding the 
troops, dispersed a formidable body of insurgents, killing or wound- 
ing some hundreds of them. On the 30th of September, 1791, the 
assembly, having presented their constitution to the king, and seen 
it solemnly approved by him, dissolved itself, declaring its members 
ineligible to future election. 

The constitution was weak and impracticable in itself; and in the 
new "legislative" assembly its hearty supporters were completely 
32 



498 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

outnumbered bj the Girondists or moderate republicans, and the 
Jacobins or anarcbists. The newlj-elected assembly met on the 1st 
of October, and a dispute with the monarch commenced almost 
instantly. Laws directed against the priests, who were endeavour- 
ing to excite revolt, and the emigrants, who had assembled in arms 
on the frontier, were passed, and met with an imprudent veto from 
the king. This rash and impolitic act was received with fury by 
the republicans. France Avas menaced with invasion from abroad 
and conspiracy at home; and their rage at being defeated in these 
necessary measures, produced a desire for a complete change of gov- 
ernment. The emperor haughtily demanded that France should 
retrace her revolutionary career ; — the assembly at once replied by a 
declaration of war (April, 1792). 

At first the French arms sustained some reverses' — a circum- 
stance that emboldened the court to persist in its refusal of the 
obnoxious laws, and of another for the formation of a "federal" 
camp near Paris. Enraged at their disappointment in regard to the 
latter, the people every where armed themselves with pikes, for the 
double purpose of resisting an invasion and intimidating the court. 
On the 20th of June, forty thousand of the populace, thus armed, 
assembled, with Santerre, a brewer, at their head. After defiling, 
by invitation, through the assembly, they marched to the palace of 
the Tuileries. Eushing up the grand stair-case, they found the mon- 
arch, with a very few attendants, and demanded his assent to the 
decrees which he had rejected. The king, who displayed the great- 
est calmness and courage, presented himself before this immense and 
tumultuous assemblage, and replied, " This is neither the time nor the 
place." To please them, he joined in the popular cry, " Yive la nation/' 
and put on a red cap, the badge of the Eevolution. By the efforts 
of the Girondists, who began to be alarmed at the spirit they had 
conjured up, this formidable assemblage finally disbanded. 

La Fayette, a firm adherent to the constitution, on learning the 
perils and degradation of the monarchy, left his forces, and hastened 
to the capital. The assembly, to which he complained, gave him 
no satisfaction; and he then repaired to Louis, and offered his per- 
sonal assistance and support. This the king, who disliked him 
personally, refused, and soon found himself left unsupported by a 
single man of influence or talent. He likewise rejected an alliance 
with the Girondists, who, awed by the menacing attitude of the peo- 
ple, began to see the necessity of supporting the executive. 



FEANCE. 499 

The troops from the provinces, distinguished (especially the Mar- 
seillais) by their ultra revolutionary feeling, had thronged to Paris ; 
and dethronement was the universal cry. Circumstances increased 
the popular agitation. The national guard, to which moderate men 
looked with some hope, was worsted in a contest with the Marseillais. 
The infamous manifesto of the duke of Brunswick, proclaiming a 
savage retribution for any insurrection against the king, soon reached 
Paris, and added to the popular fury. The clubs openly petitioned 
the assembly to abolish the monarchy. The king, though aware of 
the approaching storm, now refused to fly. 

On the 10th of August, by a preconcerted plot, the revolutionary 
party, summoned by the tocsin, gathered from all quarters, and formed 
into columns for attacking the palace. Only a single regiment of 
Swiss, a few royalists, and some of the national guard, without a 
leader, were all that could be opposed to the immense force of the 
insurgents. The queen snatched a pistol from one of the attendants, 
and entreated Louis to inspirit his men by personal action. But his 
character was not suited to the occasion ; his appearance rather dispir- 
ited than encouraged his forces; and, deserted by all, except the 
Swiss, the royal family, with great difficulty, took refuge with the 
assembly. 

Meanwhile, some of the Swiss had been massacred by the ferocious 
pike-men, and their comrades fired among the assassins. A general 
action was thus brought on, in which, after a desperate defence, the 
greater part of the Swiss and royalists were slain. The mob had 
lost three thousand of their number. The assembly, overawed by 
this demonstration of popular force, immediately suspended the king 
from his office, voted the summoning of a national convention, and 
recognised the usurped authority of the new municipality of Paris. 
The government was intrusted to a ministry, composed of Girondists 
and Jacobins. The latter, at whose nod the populace stood ready 
to take up arms, now felt their power, and pushed their measures 
accordingly. Their chiefs were Marat, a blood-thirsty fanatic, Dan- 
ton, a rough, brutal and talented demagogue, and Robespierre, a 
selfish, cold-blooded and remorseless seeker for power and popularity. 

The municipality, which they controlled, now commenced a sys- 
tem of dictation to the assembly, and usurpation of legislation to 
themselves. At their dictation, couched in the most insolent terms, 
a resolution was passed, constituting an arbitrary criminal tribunal, 
composed of one member from each section of the city. The enemy 



500 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

were advancing into tlie kingdom, and Paris itself miglit soon be in 
tlieir hands. The citizens, inspired by the fierce courage of Danton, 
prepared for a desperate resistance; and with a horrible feeling 
determined that, if defeated bj their enemies, the royalists at least 
should not enjoy the triumph. 

For some time, the prisons had been crowded with unfortunate 
persons, committed by the tribunal on suspicion of royalism. Every 
means were taken to stimulate the ferocity of the rabble, and assas- 
sins were hired by the leaders of the Jacobins. On the 2d of 
September, a report was spread that the enemy was in fall march 
for Paris. The tocsin sounded, and a horrible massacre, precon- 
certed for some time, commenced. The first victims were upwards 
of two hundred priests ; and, breaking into the prisons, the assassins 
continued their murderous work nearly all night, occasionally 
refreshing themselves with wine. The number who perished in this 
second "day of St. Bartholomew" has been estimated at thirteen 
thousand. 

Much of the atrocity justly attributed to the Revolution was 
provoked by the haughty and imprudent tone of Austria and Prus- 
sia, who had menaced France with condign punishment, if certain 
events should occur — the surest method, with a jealous and excited 
people, of hastening their accomplishment. Thus it proved in the 
present instance. Paris, threatened with the horrors of military 
license, took bloody and instant revenge on all whom she considered 
friendly to her foes. A fresh massacre of prisoners soon occurred 
at Versailles. 

Meanwhile, Dumouriez, the French commander, exhibited great 
skill and courage in repelling the enemy, who had already invaded 
the country. The duke of Brunswick and the Prussians were 
repulsed at Yalney, and the Austrians were driven from Lille. The 
latter, twenty-five thousand strong, were totally defeated by Dumou- 
riez, at Jemappes, with a loss of six thousand men. Louis Philippe, 
son of Orleans, and since king of the French, distinguished himself 
in this action. Belgium was immediately occupied by the victors. 

The "National Convention" had assembled on the 20th of Sep- 
tember, and was composed of three parties — the Gironde, which took 
its name from that of the department represented by several of its 
members — the furious Jacobins, called "The Mountain," and the 
neutral party, who bore the appellation of the Plain. Its first act 
was to abolish royalty and the existing system of judicature. A 



FEANCE. ^Qi 

fierce quarrel between tlie Mountain and tlie Gironde, destined to 
end in the utter destruction of tlie latter, soon commenced. Tlie 
Gironde, composed principally of men of talent, virtue, and classic 
enthusiasm, proposed a law for the prevention of massacres and the 
protection of the Convention. Danton, Robespierre, and Marat were 
denounced as the instigators of the late sanguinary proceedings and 
the projectors of fresh outrages. They, however, defended them- 
selves with such art and audacity as to avert the danger, and secure 
themselves a greater influence in the Convention. 

Their power and their principles were soon manifested in the 
treatment of the king and his family. These unfortunate persons 
were removed from the palace of the Luxembourg to the Temple, 
treated with much indignity, and finally separated. The more 
furious Jacobins now began to demand the trial and execution of the 
king. The Revolution was felt to be incomplete, unless, like that of 
England, cemented by the blood of a king. Besides, violence against 
royalty was regarded as the most conclusive token of patriotism; 
and the vile bidders for popular favour strove to outvie each other 
in the indignities and insults offered to their helpless prisoners. 
Robespierre first suggested the proposal to the assembly, and soon 
afterwards moved a resolution, which was passed, for his trial before 
the Convention. 

On the 11th of December, 1792, the unfortunate monarch, bearing 
himself with calmness and dignity, was placed at the bar, and spoke 
in vindication of his reign. Counsel was allowed him, and on the 
26th, an able and eloquent defence was submitted to the Convention. 
On his withdrawal, a furious debate commenced, and was continued 
on the following day — Robespierre and the Mountain demanding 
instant execution; and the Gironde vainly opposing them. The 
final vote was not taken until the 16th of January, and, in the 
mean time, fear of popular violence had induced many to join the 
more sanguinary party. The vote for the execution passed by a 
small majority, the duke of Orleans, (now Philip Equality,) to the 
surprise and horror of all, giving his voice in its favour. On the 
twenty -first, the king was conducted through a vast multitude to 
the scaffold, and after a few sentences, declaring his innocence, and 
forgiveness of his enemies, was beheaded. 

The monarch, who was thus judicially murdered, would probably, 
in better times and under better influences, have made an excellent 
and popular king. He was, without doubt, sincerely desirous of 



502 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

ameliorating the condition of his people ; and, if he had possessed 
more firmness of character, might have succeeded in accomplishing 
this object, without permitting the horrible scenes which followed. 
He owed his death to the evil counsels of his Austrian queen, to the 
injudicious and violent conduct of his friends abroad, and to the 
furj of a populace exasperated by former wrong and intoxicated 
with present triumph. 



CHAPTER YIIL 

THE CONVENTION, AND THE REIGN OF TEEROR. 

Disorder rapidly increased. Provision was scarce, and a famine 
threatened the city. Moreover, news daily came of the success of 
the enemy, and the discomfiture of the French troops on the frontier. 
In March, 1793, the Convention, overawed by a ferocious mob, 
which had been excited by the Jacobins, instituted a fresh tribunal 
to receive denunciations and punish the enemies of the republic. 
The Gironde grew weaker and weaker. They had calculated on 
the support of Dumouriez ; but that officer had already engaged in 
a quarrel with the Convention, had refused to obey its summons to 
betake himself to Paris, and "carry his head to the tigers," and had 
finally been compelled to take refuge with the enemy. La Fayette, 
who had some time before been forced to abandon France, was a 
prisoner in the dungeons of Olmutz. This defection of the once 
popular general, was alleged against the Gironde, who vainly strove 
to retort the accusation upon the fierce and influential Danton. The 
provinces, nevertheless, generally supported the former, whose able 
and eloquent leaders, Vergniaud, Barbaroux, Brissot, and Condoret, 
had made a more favourable impression on the popular mind than 
their blood-thirsty adversaries. The insurrection of La Yendee and 
other disturbances gave the more violent party strength to pass a 
law, afterwards productive of terrific consequences — that of empower- 
ing the municipal authorities all over the country to seize upon the 
suspected. Meanwhile, the Austrians continued successful ; La Yen- 
dee, espousing the cause of royalty, was in full and formidable 
insurrection; and the populace, still overawing the Convention, 



PEANCE. 503 

demanded vengeance on the moderates. On the 1st of June, a great 
and well-organized mob, led by the infamous Henriot, surrounded 
the Convention, and demanded, haughtily, the exclusion of the 
Girondists. The deputies, after vainly attempting escape, were kept 
close prisoners until they voted the arrest of thirty prominent 
members of the obnoxious party. 

Some of the proscribed leaders escaped to the provinces, and met 
with a general support from the people. Eemonstrances poured in 
to the Convention, and forces began to be levied against the anar- 
chists. Though proceeding from a real majority, these demonstrations 
were at once suppressed by the quicker and more resolute move- 
ments of the ultra revolutionists. The assassination of the odious 
Marat, by a young enthusiast named Charlotte Corday, only endeared 
his memory and his sanguinary system to the populace. Taking 
advantage of the public indignation at the advance of the allied 
armies, and the surrender of Toulon to the English, the " Committee 
of Public Safety," directed by Eobespierre and Danton, now in 
effect usurped the supreme power. While the latter fiercely sought, 
by almost unlimited impressment and seizure of property, to pro- 
vide for the national defence, his more savage and cowardly col- 
league glutted the rabble with fresh "batches" for the guillotine. 
The queen, after an odious mockery of trial, shared the fate of her 
husband, preserving her courage and haughty demeanour to the last. 
Vergniaud and a number of eminent Girondists soon followed. The 
beautiful and accomplished Madame Roland, Bailly, mayor of Paris, 
the duke of Orleans, and crowds of others also passed under the axe. 

In the provinces, the ferocious agents of the Convention exceeded 
all former horrors. At Bourdeaux, Arras, and Marseilles, the guil- 
lotine and other instruments of death were kept in full operation. 
At Lyons, which had resisted, six thousand were slain, and an 
attempt was made to demolish the city entirely. In the midst of 
these domestic horrors, the republican armies, animated by a nobler 
zeal, resisted the enemy with antique heroism. Austria, Prussia, 
Spain, and England were now all in arms against France, and all 
were destined to be defeated. Toulon, held by an English garri- 
son and fleet, was closely besieged, and the enemy were finally 
compelled to evacuate it, having first destroyed the French fleet and 
magazines. This result was chiefly due to the military skill of 
Napoleon Bonaparte, a young Corsican officer of artillery, who 
repaired the mistakes and disasters of his insufiicient employers. 



504 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

This man, whose name is the most celebrated in history, was born 
in Corsica in 1769, and at this time was twenty-four years old. He 
had been educated in the royal military school, at Brienne, and 
from early youth had been distinguished by his talent and untiring 
industry. 

The Convention had now completely succumbed to the "Reign of 
Terror." It was the mere instrument in the hands of Robespierre 
and his colleagues, and its members sought eagerly the highest 
benches of the Mountain, in order to gain the reputation of ultra- 
republicanism. Danton, however, who, with all his sensuality and 
ferocity, was not destitute of human feeling, became weary of this 
scene of bloodshed, and retired into the country. A scandalous 
farce was next enacted at the capital. The archbishop of Paris, 
with other of the apostate clergy, openly renounced Christianity, 
and joined in worshipping the goddess "Reason," who, in the per- 
son of a well-known actress, was enthroned at the church of Notre 
Dame. Robespierre, however, set his face against atheism, and at 
his iiistance, the leading anarchists, whose power he dreaded, were 
sent to the guillotine (24th of March, 1794). He was also jealous 
of Danton, who wished to stay the effusion of blood; and this 
"bold bad man" was suddenly arrested, with several of his party, 
and lodged in prison. "Fool!" he exclaimed, "I alone could have 
saved him." When arraigned before the tribunal, and asked, accord- 
ing to form, his name and residence, he haughtily replied: "My 
dwelling will soon be annihilation; my name will be found in the 
Pantheon of History." They were all despatched to the never-fail- 
ing guillotine, which had received so many of their victims before 
them. The last relics of the nobility and royalty soon followed 
them ; and to these succeeded crowds of nuns, taken en masse from 
their convents to be butchered, or of peasant women from La Ven- 
dee. The Princess Elizabeth, sister to Louis, perished at this time, 
when the murderers, for want of victims, sought their prey among 
the weaker and more helpless sex. Still greater atrocities were 
perpetrated in the provinces; great numbers suffered in the "/^^s^7- 
lades,^^ despatched by cannon and musketry, and greater still in the 
^^noyades,^^ where thousands were taken in hulks to the midst of 
rivers, and then drowned by scuttling the vessels. These horrid 
scenes occurred in many parts of the country. 

Robespierre now endeavoured to found his power upon some 
surer and more reputable footing than that of mere massacre. He 



FEANCE. 5Q5 

was not fond of blood, like those of his colleagues who butchered 
for amusement or from mere ferocity^ — but simply regardless of it. 
In superseding the functions of some of these wretches, he excited 
their anger, and a secret conspiracy was formed for his overthrow. 
Artful reports were circulated, to the effect that he had a list of pro- 
scription including half the Convention. This body, which for some 
time had tremblingly obeyed his commands, took the alarm, and 
gathered courage from despair. The situation of the tyrant at this 
time has been a^tly compared to that of the buccaneering chief, 
who, descending the river Orellana with a party of his crew, slew 
one after another, through jealousy, until the remnant, to save their 
own lives, took that of their ferocious commander. Perceiving the 
danger, he organized a fresh insurrection, which, at the critical 
moment, might break forth in his favour, and then addressed the 
Convention in a speech of many hours, recounting his services, and 
denouncing his opponents. Some defended themselves; others 
pressed him to name his enemies. It is probable that if, at this 
moment, he had demanded the heads of a limited number of his 
most dangerous foes, the majority, to save their own, would have 
com.plied. But he refused, and the members, each thinking his own 
name might be on the fatal list, drew closer together in self-defence. 
On the following day, the 27th of July, Tallien, Billaud, and other 
powerful orators, launched unmeasured denunciations against the 
dictator. For a long time, phrensied with rage and despair, he vainly 
endeavoured to be heard. "President of assassins," he screamed in 
the harshest tones, "for the last time, I demand liberty of speech." 
It was denied him, and a decree was unanimously passed, ordering 
his arrest, and that of four of his companions. The keepers of the 
prisons, however, refused to receive them, and Henriot, with his 
gens d'armes, rescued them, and conveyed them to the Hotel de 
Ville. Even now, had a man of true action been among them, these 
villains might have come off triumphant, and resumed their sway ; 
but the night was passed in vain consultation ; their forces gradually 
dispersed; and in the same night they were captured by a party of 
soldiers in the interest of the Convention. Eobespierre vainly 
attempted to despatch himself with a pistol, but was reserved for 
the guillotine. Sentence of outlawry had already been passed 
against the chiefs of the Terrorists, and on the next day, 10 Ther- 
midor (28th of July), twenty-one in number, they left their heads 
in the Place de la Eevolution, where so many worthier victims had 



506 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

perislied before them. An immense crowd witnessed their fate witli 
exultation; Eobespierre was executed last, and the axe descended 
upon him in the midst of tremendous applause. Thus ended the 
"Eeign of Terror." 



THE CONVENTION AND THE DIRECTOEY. 

The leaders of the new movement, still embarrassed by the violence 
of some who had aided them, and dreading unpopularity, adopted 
only by degrees a milder policy. The worst agents of the Terror- 
ists were sent to the scaffold, amid universal satisfaction. Their 
"suspected" victims in the prisons, who for a long time had beheld 
the guillotine in daily view, were gradually discharged. This humane 
and rational movement was greatly aided by the Parisian youth, 
who, neither suspected of royalism, nor degraded by the crimes of 
the Eevolution, now played an influential part in restoring order 
and the refinements of life. By their aid the Jacobin club, so long 
the focus of insurrection and the instigator of massacre, was closed. 

The few surviving members of the Gironde were recalled; and 
the desire for domestic peace began to be half-realized. But a formi- 
dable circumstance embarrassed the restorers of order. The late 
government, which, though hated, was universally obeyed, had com- 
pelled the producers and holders of provisions to furnish them to 
the citizens at low prices. The terror of death removed, they 
refused compliance with the edicts, and the capital was again men- 
aced with famine. Moreover, the remaining Terrorists, foreseeing 
their fate, incited the rabble to fresh insurrection. In the spring of 
1795, the cry for "bread" was resumed and riots recommenced. 
These were at first suppressed by the youth, who always stood for- 
ward as supporters of order; and in April, in the midst of a violent 
popular demonstration, the leading anarchists (Billaud-Varennes and 
others) were condemned to transportation. The people, who tried 
to rescue them, were defeated by the troops of the Convention, afi;er 
a sharp action. 



FEANCE. 



507 



On tlie 20t'h. of May, liowever, a large and furious mob surrounded 
tlie assembly, defeated its guard, and murdered one of tlie members. 
The President, Boissy D' Anglas, exhibited the most heroic courage ; 
but the populace gained the complete ascendancy; and the remains 
of the Mountain, supported by them, passed a series of violent popu- 
lar decrees. The same night, however, the members gathered a 
force, expelled the mob, annulled the decrees, and ordered the arrest 
of the Mountainists. The "Thermidoriens," (as the assailants of 
Eobespierre called themselves) were now completely victorious. 
The Fauxbourg St. Antoine, long the head-quarters of insurrection, 
threatened with bombardment, submitted, and gave up its cannon. 
The leading Jacobins were seized, and six of them condemned to 
death. On hearing their sentence, one stabbed himself with a knife, 
and passed it to his companions, who all followed his example. Only 
one or two survived long enough to be guillotined. In the provinces 
a heavier retribution awaited the vanquished party. In Lyons and 
many other places, those who had supported the "Eeign of Terror," 
were massacred in great numbers by the indignant people. 

Meanwhile, the arms of France had been almost every where 
successful. The royalist insurrection of La Vendee was suppressed 
with terriiic loss of life, in the winter of 1793-4. Carnot, a fierce 
and sanguinary republican, but a patriotic and able minister of war, 
planned an effective campaign in Flanders. The Austrian, Prus- 
sian, and English forces, amounting to two hundred thousand men, 
were defeated, or outgeneralled by Jourdan, Pichegru, and Berna- 
dotte, and forced to retire. Flanders and Holland were soon overrun, 
and all west of the Ehine was ere long in possession of the French. 
Spain, Prussia, and other states were now willing to sign treaties of 
peace. England alone still maintained an attitude of uncompromis- 
ing hostility ; and Austria, supported by her subsidies, consented to 
continue the war. This course, which Pitt, the English minister, 
thought proper to pursue, was dictated by national pride and jeal- 
ousy. Hatred of republicanism, and a dread of its increasing power 
and influence, were also powerful motives with a tory court and 
ministry. Luckily, their ability was inferior to their wishes. An 
expedition of emigrant royalists which was despatched to Quiberon, 
to commence an insurrection, was defeated with much loss by Gen- 
eral Hoche, and the unfortunate prisoners were executed as traitors 
to their country. 
In spite of these successes, the Convention was excessively unpopu 



508 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

lar. It had been deeply implicated in the worst scenes of the Eeign 
of Terror, and thus was obnoxious to all moderate men ; while, by 
receding from the worst fury of the Revolution, it made enemies 
among the anarchists. Into the three years during which it had held 
control of the nation, was crowded an immense amount of tyranny, 
bloodshed, and suffering; and all classes apparently longed for a 
more trustworthy government. A new constitution had been 
decreed, by which authority for the future was to be vested in a 
council of five hundred members, and another of two hundred and 
fifty, called the "Ancients," with five directors for an executive. It 
was also voted that the present Assembly should select from its own 
body two-thirds of the ensuing legislature. These measures were 
submitted to the army and to the primary assemblies of the people, 
and approved by both — artifice and collusion being probably used in 
the latter. The more respectable citizens of Paris, composing the 
national guard, approved the new constitiition ; but, indignant at 
seeing this body of selfish demagogues perpetuate their power in 
such an arbitrary manner, took up arms to oppose them. General 
Menou, who was first employed against them, efiected nothing, and 
the fall of the Convention seemed inevitable. At this juncture, a 
few words from Barras, afterwards the chief of the directors, decided 
the fate of France, He said to his colleagues: "I have the man for 
you- — -a little Corsican officer, who will not stick at trifles." — Bona- 
parte, to whom he alluded, had been in disgrace and unemployed 
since the fall of Robespierre, with whose brother he had been inti- 
mate. Glad of an opportunity to regain the confidence of govern- 
ment, he accepted the command of five thousand regular troops, 
which the Convention had at their disposal. On the 6th of Octo- 
ber, the citizens, vastly outnumbering his force, made an attack 
on the Convention; but his plans were laid with such judgment, 
that after suffering severely from a fire of artillery, they were dis- 
persed, and fled. The Convention, triumphant over its enemies, on 
the 26th played the farce of a dissolution. 

It came together, with the addition of two hundred and fifty 
newly-elected member^, in October, 1795, and the latter number 
was selected from the more aged to form the council of "Ancients." 
Five directors, all regicides, were appointed — Barras being the 
principal. The condition of the country, and of Paris especially, 
was wretched in the extreme. Famine was impending ; the govern- 
ment had no funds; such a vast number of assignats (amounting to 



FEANCE. 



509 



nineteen tlionsand millions of francs) liad been issued, that the cur ■ 
rency was utterly disordered. A forced loan was made, and fresh 
penal laws enacted against the opposers of government. The reign 
of brutality and blood was nevertheless over. The daughter of 
the unfortunate Louis was delivered to her friends. The young heir 
to the crown (Louis XVII.) had already perished of ill-treatment. 
The executive, possessing tolerable unity, and backed by a standing 
force, firmly maintained its position. 

From this period, the history of France is almost merged in that 
of Napoleon. In March, 1796, he married Josephine, widow of 
Yiscount Beauharnais, and at the same time received command of 
the army of Italy. The effect of his military genius was soon 
apparent. The Austrians, under Beaulieu, were defeated in a 
single week at Montenotte, Dego and Millesimo; they lost ten 
thousand men in battle, and fifteen thousand prisoners; all Pied- 
mont submitted; and the road to Italy lay open to the French 
armies. The of&cious instructions of the Directory met with short 
and peremptory replies from the young general. Pursuing his 
march, he found the Austrians posted at the bridge of Lodi, which 
they raked with thirty cannon. Despite this tremendous fire, a 
large column of grenadiers, led by the bravest of his generals; 
rushed upon it, and after much loss defeated the enemy. The last 
disposable force of Beaulieu was thus routed and dispersed. 

On the 14th of May, Napoleon entered Milan in triumph, and 
levied heavy contributions of money and valuable paintings upon 
that and other cities. His Austrian opponents were soon expelled 
■from all Italy, except Mantua, where they were besieged. Eome, 
dreading his approach, purchased his clemency by a great sacrifice 
of money and works of art. 

These achievements had been accomplished in a single month by 
forty thousand men. In Germany, an hundred and fifty thousand, 
commanded by Moreau and Jourdan, had been for some time 
cautiously contending with disadvantage, against an equal number, 
led by the Archduke Charles and General Wurmser. The latter, 
afiier the misfortunes of Beaulieu, was appointed to command the 
new army of Italy, which was increased to sixty thousand men. 
The French general was besieging Mantua, when tidings came of 
the defeat of Massena and Guyeux, who were left to oppose this 
fresh enemy. He raised the siege instantly, and taking advantage 
of the separation of the Austrians, defeated them in succession at 



510 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. 

Lonato and Castiglione. Wiirmser, witli the remainder of his 
forces, retreated into the Tyrol. 

The siege of Mantua was resumed, and in September the Aus- 
trians, renewing the campaign, were again defeated at Roveredo, 
Colliano, and Bassano. Wurmser, with fifteen thousand men, the 
remains of his arni}^, took refuge in Mantua, and the siege was 
formed for the third time. The successful general began legislating 
for the conquered districts; and a portion of Italy, liberally inclined, 
was formed into the ''Cisalpine Republic." 

Austria, undisheartened, sent a fresh army, under Marshal 
Alvinzi, who, reinforced by the relics of Beaulieu and Wurmser, 
marched toward Verona, repulsing all attempts to retard him. 
Napoleon, with outnumbered and wearied forces, was almost in 
despair, and resolved on a desperate effort. With only thirteen 
thousand men, he crossed the Adige, and endeavoured to surprise 
the enemy in the rear ; but failing in this, was engaged for three days 
in a fiercely-contested battle at Areola. The bridge and causeway 
leading to that town were occupied by the Austrian forces ; and the 
fire was so tremendous that the French were repulsed in repeated 
attacks. To animate his troops, Napoleon seized a standard, rushed 
on the bridge, and planted it with his own hand. After being 
exposed to the greatest personal danger, he succeeded, on the 17th 
of November, in completely defeating the enemy. Alvinzi lost 
eighteen thousand men, and retired into the Alps. 

In spite of these manifold defeats, another Austrian army was 
enlisted, and placed under his command. On the 14th of January, 
1797, he made a powerful attack on the forces of Napoleon, which 
were posted on the heights of Rivoli. The Austrians met with a 
determined resistance, and were utterly routed. Provera, who, with 
another division, had attempted to relieve Mantua, was also defeated ; 
and finally that city itself, after a long and gallant resistance, was 
compelled by famine to capitulate. The papal forces, which had 
moved in favour of Austria, were routed at Imola ; and the Pope 
was compelled to purchase peace by fresh sacrifices of treasure and 
art. "Thus terminated the first campaign of Bonaparte; the most 
brilliant in modern history, considering the armies and the empire 
conquered, and the unequal numbers with which this was achieved." 

The Directory, elated by these advantages, would listen to no 
terms of peace, either with England or Austria; and Bernadotte, 
with thirty thousand troops from Germany, was ordered to effect a 



FEANCE. ^11 

junction with ISTapoleon. Early in March, 1797, the latter crossed 
the Alps, defeating the archduke at the Tagliamento. Town after 
town was taken, and in a fortnight the victorious army had advanced 
within twenty-four leagues of Vienna. But the promised reinforce- 
ments did not arrive ; and Napoleon, wisely cautious of attempting too 
much, proposed an armistice, which was signed at Leoben in April. 
He took advantage, however, of certain massacres committed on the 
French, to suppress the ancient oligarchy of Venice; which, after 
an existence of twelve hundred years, changed her government to 
a democracy, and submitted entirely to the will of the conqueror. 

While these splendid successes continued abroad, the Directory, a 
majority of which were short-sighted demagogues, was excessively 
unpopular at home. Another third of the council, according to the 
constitution, was elected, and thus gave a majority over the Directory 
to the moderates. The royalists also began to agitate, and supported 
the latter. Barras, Eeubel, and Lepaux, a selfish, unprincipled 
majority of the former, had hitherto ruled the country; and deter- 
mined to try military force before resigning their power. Napoleon, 
who owed his elevation to their patronage, despatched Augereau, an 
able general, to assist them. They resolved on the same course 
which Cromwell had tried so successfully on the English parliaments. 
On the 4th of September, Augereau, with his forces, surrounded the 
councils at midnight, and then, and on the following day, arrested 
a great number of the majority. Seventy of the most distinguished 
were arbitrarily transported to the deadly climate of Cayenne. 
Every where, the favourers of a reaction were seized, and exiled from 
the country. The Jacobin minority, which remained, conferred 
almost despotic power upon the directors, and the reign of terror 
seemed about to revive. They cancelled two-thirds of the national 
debt; and rejected honourable terms of peace with England and 
Austria. Napoleon, however, was resolved to have his own way 
with the latter, and accordingly entered into negotiations. Cobent- 
zel, the Austrian plenipotentiary, interposing vexatious delays, the 
enraged victor dashed to the ground a splendid porcelain vase, 
exclaiming that he would thus shatter the empire, unless instant 
peace was concluded. Terrified into terms, the Austrian submitted; 
and the treaty of Campo Eormio was signed, by which Austria, as 
some recompense for her losses, basely took possession of her ancient 
ally, the state of Venice. 

The triumphant young general, returning to Paris, was received 



f5J[2 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

with the highest honours. He soon perceived the incapacity and 
unpopularity of the present rulers of France, and doubtless cherished 
ambitious schemes for his own advancement. But, to use his own 
expression, "the pear was not yet ripe;" and after some futile 
preparations for the invasion of England, he conceived the idea of 
attacking that power in her Indian possessions, and of forming an 
Eastern empire for himself An expedition to Egypt, as the most 
vulnerable point of attack, was resolved on; the Directory were glad 
to get rid of one whose influence they were beginning to dread ; and 
the funds for the undertaking were on a frivolous pretext extorted 
from the small and defenceless state of Berne. Twenty-five thousand 
men, mostly veterans, and officered by distinguished generals, four 
hundred transports, and fifteen men-of-war, composed this splendid 
expedition, which sailed from Toulon on the 19th of May, 1798. 

Taking possession of the island of Malta on its way, the expedition 
reached Alexandria on the 1st of July, and marched to Cairo. The 
Mamalukes, under Mourad Bey, fought desperately at the "Battle of 
the Pyramids," charging the immoveable squares of the French with 
the most reckless impetuosity ; but were utterly defeated, and vast 
numbers of them perished on the field, or in vainly attempting to 
swim the Nile. At the same time the French fleet, in the Bay of 
Aboukir, was defeated and almost destroyed by that of the English, 
under Admiral Nelson. 

The enlightened and legislative mind of Napoleon soon established 
a better government in Egypt than that unhappy country had known 
for centuries; but he was recalled to military action, in 1799, by 
the hostility of the Turks. Marching across the desert, he took the 
port of Jaffa by storm, and cruelly massacred several thousand pris- 
oners, who had surrendered. He then laid siege to Acre, which 
was defended by the ferocious Pasha Djezzar (the Butcher) and assisted 
by the English fleet. After many desperate assaults, in which the 
flower of his army was destroyed, he relinquished the hopeless 
undertaking, and returned to Egypt. In July, a Turkish army of 
eighteen thousand men, commanded by Mustapha Pasha, landed at 
Aboukir. The French commander immediately gave them battle; 
and, charged by the cavalry of Murat, they were utterly defeated, 
twelve thousand perishing on the field and in the neighbouring 
sea. The remainder surrendered. Mustapha was brought before the 
victor, who courteously said that the sultan should be informed of the 
valour he had displayed, although defeated. "Spare thyself the 



FEANCE 



513 



trouble," replied the liauglitj Turk; "my master knows me better 
than thou canst." 

Having accomplislied this, the French commander resolved upon 
returning to France, where his own interests and those of the republic 
alike seemed to demand his presence. The directors, by practically 
annulling the freedom of elections, had added to their unpopularity. 
They had increased the enmity and jealousy of foreign powers by 
dethroning the Pope, and revolutionizing and overawing the neigh- 
bouring countries. A coalition between Eussia, Austria, and Eng- 
land was formed for the purpose of humbling the French republic. 
The court of Naples moved first, but was defeated, and compelled 
to fly from the kingdom, which was constituted into the "Partheno- 
pean republic." To defend France from her powerful opponents, 
whose forces amounted to three hundred thousand men, a conscrip- 
tion was now, for the first time, levied throughout the country, 
Jourdan, one of their ablest generals, was defeated, and compelled to 
cross the Ehine. Scherer, in Italy, met the same fate, and yielded his 
command to Moreau, whose skill and capacity came too late to save 
Italy. On the banks of the Trebia, Macdonald was defeated by 
Suwarrow, with terrible slaughter, in a battle which lasted for three 
successive days. Massena, in Switzerland, had been compelled to 
retreat, and the English and Eussians invaded Holland. 

These and other reverses so weakened the government that three 
of the directors were compelled to resign. They were succeeded by 
others, who, by forced loans and extended conscriptions, sought to 
carry on the government with vigour. The gallant young Joubert, 
who was next sent against Suwarrow, was on the 15th of August, 
1799, defeated at Novi, and died on the field of battle. All Italy 
was thus lost to the French. In Holland, however, the British, under 
the duke of York, had been compelled to evacuate the country; 
and at Zurich, Massena had given a terrible defeat to Korsakow and 
his Eussians. Suwarrow was com^pelled to retreat over Mount St. 
Gothard, with a loss of two-thirds of his force. 

At this crisis, Napoleon, after a perilous passage, landed at Frejus, 
on the 9th of October. He hurried to Paris, meeting on the way 
all the evidences of wretched misgovernment. On his arrival, though 
affecting seclusion, he was continually surrounded by nearly all who 
had influence in the state or the army. The "pear" was evidently 
ripe; but he would have been contented at this time with a place 
in the directory, which, however, the foolish incumbents of the 
83 



514 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

executive refused him. He immediately resolved on a more import- 
ant step and a higher elevation. 

Nearly all the of&cers in Paris were strongly in his interest. The 
subtle Abb6 Sieyes, and Ducos, one of the directors, were in league 
with him. On the 9th of November, he held a general levee of the 
military chiefs. The Council of Ancients appointed him to command 
the troops of the capital. To a message from the Directory, he 
haughtily retorted their incapacity and the misfortunes of France. 
Barras, persuaded by Talleyrand, resigned. Sieyes and Ducos vol- 
untarily did the same. Gohier and Moulins, who were refractory, 
were arrested. The Directory thus set aside. Napoleon harangued 
the Ancients, asserting the worthlessness of the constitution, and his 
intention of reforming the government. He was received with 
applause, and went to try his eloquence with the more obstinate 
"Five Hundred." Here, however, he was received with fury, and 
nearly lost his life in their hands. Rescued by his grenadiers, he 
would have been immediately outlawed, but that his brother Lucien, 
who was President, refused to put the vote. The latter, leaving the 
assembly, declared it dissolved on account of the violence of its 
members. This decision was immediately enforced by Murat with 
a company of grenadiers. "With fixed bayonets they cleared the 
hall, the members escaping through the windows, and leaving their 
"togas" (worn in imitation of Rome) torn among the bushes. 

The same evening, the Ancients, with a few of the Five Hundred, 
assembled, abolished the Directory, and appointed a provisional 
executive of three consuls in its stead. 



»j LuiL iXrAj Jj iL Jj iLii tioo 



THE CONSULATE. 



Napoleon, Sieyes and Ducos, were appointed provisional consuls, 
and directed to prepare a constitution. The plan of Sieyes for a 
"grand elector," with only the shadow of authority, was instantly 
rejected by the former. "What man of spirit," said he, "would 



FEANCE. 5]^5 

consent to fatten like a pig on so many millions a-year?" He then 
produced his own scheme. Three consuls were to be appointed, the 
first, however, alone being intrusted with power. He was to name 
a senate, and that a tribunate, all the members of both being 
appointed for life, and receiving handsome salaries. This almost 
absolute system was presented to the people in their primary assem- 
blies, and sanctioned by nearly four million votes — so gTeat was the 
popularity of Napoleon and the disgust at the excesses of the Revo- 
lution. Assured in office, as First Consul, with Cambacer^s and 
Lebrun as nominal assistants, with Talleyrand as minister of foreign 
affairs, and Fouche as chief of police, the new dictator entered the 
palace of the Tuileries, and commenced his legislative career. 

England and Austria unwisely refused the peace which he offered ; 
and he soon saw the necessity of retrieving the reputation of France 
by another splendid campaign. To blind the enemy, he quietly 
assembled a strong force at Dijon, under the title of the Army of 
Reserve, but in reality destined to recover Italy. On the 6th of 
May, 1800, the first consul left Paris; and on the 20th, with an 
army of forty thousand men, made the celebrated passage over 
Mount St. Bernard. In this remarkable exploit, like Hannibal, he 
contended with the greatest obstacles, caused by cold, snow, and the 
difficulty of the ascent. At any unusually difficult passage, the 
drums would sound a charge, and the troops, dragging their cannon 
in wooden sheathes, surmounted the obstacle. He entered Italy, 
and the Austrian general, Melas, could hardly credit the report. 
Several towns of Northern Italy were immediately taken. Genoa, 
however, after a brave defence by Massena, had already fallen, and 
the officers of Melas pushed on in pursuit of the French. They 
were, however, completely defeated by Lannes, at Montebello, with 
a loss of five thousand men. Napoleon, fearing lest his opponents 
should escape, took up a disadvantageous position at Marengo, and 
on the 14th of June, being surprised by them, was almost defeated. 
Half his army was in retreat, when he was reinforced by Dessaix, 
and, planting a strong battery, resisted the approach of the enemj. 
Exposed to a tremendous fire, and charged furiously on either side 
by Dessaix and Kellerman, they were broken, and completely 
defeated. Dessaix fell by a musket-ball in the heat of the action. 

Austria, after this decisive victory, readily listened to terms of 
peace. By the conditions of an armistice, all the conquests of 
Suwarrow were abandoned, and Napoleon returned in triumph to 



516 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Paris. Nevertlieless, tlie defeated nation, after tlie expiration of 
this, resumed hostilities in Germany. The Archduke John, who 
commanded there, was, however, utterly defeated by Moreau, at 
Hohenlinden, and Austria then signed a treaty as favourable to the 
French as that of Campo Formio. 

The first consul, on the 25th of December, narrowly escaped 
assassination. An "Infernal Machine," prepared by certain furious 
royalists, was exploded near his carriage. Eighty persons were 
killed or wounded, but the chief object of this atrocious design was 
unhurt. This defeated attempt strengthened his hands, and enabled 
him to suppress the remains of Jacobinism, and gain more full and 
irresponsible authority. He now resolved, it is probable, upon 
reorganizing a monarchy, and, as an important auxiliary to govern- 
ment, reestablished, with the sanction of the Pope, the Catholic 
church, in union with the state. To the remonstrances of the Kevo- 
lutionists, he replied: "I was a Mahometan in Egypt, and I will be 
a Catholic here, for the good of the people." On Easter Sunday, 
1802, a solemn Te Deum at Notre Dame commemorated the reinstal- 
lation of the Eomish hierarchy. Napoleon attended, and his generals, 
with covert sneers, were compelled to do the same. 

The British, unable to assail their foe in any other quarter, had 
despatched an expedition to Egypt, under General Abercrombie. 
Taking Malta on its way, it arrived ; and the French, after suffering 
a defeat, capitulated, on condition of being transported to their 
country. The consul, meanwhile, made great preparations at Bou- 
logne for an invasion of England ; and though it may be doubted if 
he seriously intended it, great alarm was occasioned to the enemy, 
A peace, however, was concluded at Amiens, in March, 1802, by 
which the French were to regain Malta and other important posses- 
sions, and agreed to evacuate Southern Italy. 

In May, Napoleon was declared by the legislative body first con- 
sul for life ; he had already been chosen president of the Cisalpine 
Eepiiblic. Piedmont was annexed to France, and her preponderant 
power in Southern Europe was otherwise plainly exhibited. The 
English ministry, jealous of this increasing dominion, scandalously 
broke the treaty so lately signed at Amiens. They refused to sur- 
render Malta and the Cape of Good Hope, alleging the most frivolous 
and untenable pretences. A furious paper warfare was also kept up 
between the presses of the two nations, and Napoleon had the folly 
to enter it in person. He was, nevertheless, sincerely desirous of 



FEANCE. 517 

peace, and met tlie insolent demands of the British government 
with moderation and temper. England, however, in May, 1803, 
declared war, by laying an embargo on French vessels, and issuing 
orders for the seizure of French colonies. To revenge this perfidi- 
ous surprise. Napoleon detained all British subjects who chanced to 
be within the jurisdiction of France. He also immediately occupied 
ISTaples, and took possession of the electorate of Hanover, pertaining 
to the British sovereign. Eussia remonstrated in vain, and Prussia, 
tempted by the offer of Hanover, was half-inclined to enlist in the 
cause of the favourite of fortune. The Emperor Alexander, of 
Eussia, succeeded, however, in detaching her from his interests ; and 
the "continental system," excluding England from all the ports of 
Europe, could not yet be fully effected. Napoleon now seriously 
turned his thoughts to the invasion of England ; and a powerful army 
and flotilla were assembled at Boulogne. 

In the year 1804, a formidable conspiracy of the royalists was 
detected. Moreau, who was deeply implicated, was compelled to go 
into exile. General Pichegru and Captain Wright, an Englishman, 
two of the accused, were found mysteriously dead in their prisons. 
Georges Cadoudal and others, whose object had evidently been assas- 
sination, were publicly tried and executed. During the progress 
of this discovery, Napoleon committed a most violent and arbitrary 
act. The young due d'Enghien, a member of the royal family of 
Bourbon, was seized in a neutral territory, where he was probably 
awaiting the results of the conspiracy at Paris, was hurried to Vin- 
cennes, tried by a court martial on the charge of bearing arms 
against France, and immediately executed. This cruel and unlaw- 
ful act was caused by Napoleon's anger at the repeated schemes for 
his assassination, and his wish to alarm the contrivers of conspiracy. 

The defeated project only increased his power. The senate, 
under pretext of ensuring the perpetuity of government against 
such attacks, passed a decree on the 18th of May, 1804, creating 
him "Emperor of the French," and leaving the question of heredi- 
tary right to the people. This was confirmed by a vote of only 
three millions to two ; the republican spirit being yet predominant 
in many parts of France. Court officers, bearing the titles of the 
ancient regime^ were also created; and seventeen of the principal 
generals were declared marshals of France. The army at Bou- 
logne, to which the emperor presented himself, hailed his elevation 
with enthusiasm. The Pope himself proceeded to Paris for the 



518 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

purpose of crowning the successor of Charlemagne. The ceremon j 
took place on the 2d of December, with great magnificence, in 
Notre Dame. Napoleon, however, taking the crown from the pon- 
tiff, placed it on his own brow, and that of Josephine on her's. He 
was then solemnly consecrated by the Pope, and listened to a sermon, 
in which his Holiness compared himself to Samuel, and the new 
emperor to David. 



THE EMPIRE. 

Almost immediately on his accession to the throne, the emperor 
was menaced with fresh hostilities. England, emboldened by the 
support of Kussia, openly and piratically seized upon the vessels of 
Spain, a nation with which she was at peace, but which was sup- 
posed to be secretly in the interest of France. This produced an 
alliance between the two latter countries, and encouraged the hopes 
of Napoleon, that their united fleets might yet dispute the empire 
of the seas with their common enemy. A fresh defeat, however, 
soon proved their inferiority. In the spring of 1805, he received 
the title of "King of Italy," and the "iron crown" of Charlemagne. 
Genoa and other important places were added to the empire. 
Although his attention was now apparently absorbed by the great 
preparations at Boulogne, he was well aware, from the menacing 
attitude of the northern powers, that the field of battle lay in 
another direction ; and he secretly planned campaigns against the 
threatened coalition. 

In April, 1805, England, Eussia, Austria, and Sweden concluded 
a hostile alliance against him — Prussia, like the bat in the fable, 
hovering between the two interests, and waiting the event to espouse 
that of the victor. Napoleon vainly endeavoured by negotiation 
to avert the storm; but learning that the Austrians had occupied 
Munich, the capital of his ally, gave orders for the formidable 
"Army of England" to march toward the Ehine. A splendid tri- 
umph was the result. Mack, the Austrian General, with his whole 



FEANGE. 519 

army, was shut up in Ulm, and compelled to capitulate. Sixty 
thousand men, two hundred pieces of cannon, and eighty stand of 
colours were taken. In a campaign of fifteen days, the Austrians 
were expelled from Bavaria. The usual ill-fortune of France, how- 
ever, awaited her at sea. On the 21st of October, the day after the 
surrender of Ulm, the combined French and Spanish fleets were 
defeated and almost annihilated by Nelson at Trafalgar. 

Pursuing his conquests, Napoleon marched into Austria, and, on 
the 15th of November, entered Vienna in triumph. The emperors 
of Eussia and Austria, with eighty thousand men, had rallied at 
Olmutz: their opponent, with one-fourth less, determined to give 
them battle. As the enemy approached, he used the most artful 
manoeuvres to convince them of his weakness, and that he meditated 
a retreat. His imperial rivals, yet inexperienced in the art of war, 
fell completely into the snare, and by attempting to surround him 
at Austerlitz, and prevent his escape, materially weakened their 
lines. On the 2d of December, the "sun of Austerlitz" rose with 
unclouded splendour. So certain of victory did Napoleon feel, that 
in a printed order, he informed his troops of the probable manoeu- 
vres of the battle. It befell as he anticipated. The Eussians, 
attempting to cut off his right, were charged and dispersed. At 
Austerlitz, however, the French were repulsed, and were pursued 
by the Eussians, until General Eapp, by a brilliant charge, restored 
the day, and, after a desperate conflict, routed the Eussian Guard in 
presence of its emperor. Attempting to retreat over the lake, a 
terrible event added to the destruction of the vanquished. The ice 
giving way, precipitated thousands into a watery grave. Ten thou- 
sand were slain, and the effective force of the allied army was 
reduced to one-half. 

After this disaster, Alexander retired to his dominions : Austria 
received reasonable terms from the victor; and Prussia, whose 
ambassador had arrived just before the battle with a menacing 
message, (changed by the event into a congratulation,) was terrified 
into resigning a portion of her dominions. Hanover, however, 
belonging to her ally, the king of Great Britain, was allotted to her as 
some compensation. New kingdoms were parcelled out in Germany 
to support the influence of France. From his newly-acquired territo- 
ries in Italy, the emperor formed principalities and dukedoms for his 
favourite generals and a few eminent civilians. His brother Joseph 
was made king of Naples and Louis, another, king of Holland. 



520 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

His power, in reality, now extended over all Southern Europe: 
Austria, Spain, and Germany submitting completely to his dictation. 
Prussia, however, which had greedily accepted Hanover, was alarmed 
by learning that Napoleon had offered to restore it to England, as a 
condition of peace. The "Confederation of the Khine," by which 
Napoleon, emulating Charlemagne, became the feudal master of 
Germany, was a source of yet further trouble and jealousy; and in 
August, 1806, the court of Prussia madly resojved to attack the 
power which had humbled the imperial armies of Austria and Eus- 
sia. In September, they invaded the territories of some of the 
smaller states, and in a bulletin imperiously warned the French to 
quit Germany altogether. Napoleon, with his customary fondness 
for paper warfare and personality, answered with another, ridiculing 
the queen and court. Marching on the Prussian army, by an able 
manoeuvre, he cut them off from their country and their supplies. 

On the 14th of October, two decisive actions took place within a 
short distance of each other. At Jena, the Prussians, under Prince 
Hohenlohe, engaged the main body of 'the French, imder Napoleon 
himself; they were utterly routed, and compelled to fly. At Auer- 
stadt, Davoust found himself compelled to contend against the chief 
part of their army, three times his own number, and commanded 
by the king and the duke of Brunswick. Formed into squares, the 
French infantry resisted repeated charges of cavalry, led on by 
Blucher. The duke of Brunswick and the king, who succeeded 
him, were equally unsuccessful ; and finally this valiant and auda- 
cious infantry charged in their turn, broke the enemies' lines, and 
drove them in mingled confusion with the fugitives of Jena. 

This victory decided the fate of Prussia. On the following day, 
Erfurt, with one hundred pieces of cannon, and fourteen hundred 
men, surrendered to Murat. The column which commemorated the 
defeat of the French at Eosbach, by Frederick the Great, was sent to 
Paris ; and the sword, star, and colours of that hero shared a similar 
fate. On the 27th, Napoleon entered Berlin, where he conducted him- 
self in all respects as the absolute master of the destinies of Prussia. 
Indeed, the whole kingdom was in his hands. Nearly every fortress 
and important town had surrendered, and King Frederick had fled 
beyond the Oder. Feeling himself now master of nearly all the 
ports of Europe, he issued the celebrated "Berlin decrees." 

Alleging as his pretext the numerous violations of national law 
committed by England, he declared that country in a state of block- 




NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, ■ 

Born at, Ajaccio m Coi-«ic:i,, August 15th, 17G9 First Consul of France, 1709 
Emperor of France, 1804. Emperor of Ellia, 1814 Emperor of France, 181a 
Exiled to St Helena, October, 1815. Died Mat 5ta. 1821 



'Oil, more or ie.'9S ttmn mn.n — in bigti or low, 
Battling Avitb nations, fiyin.R from the field ; 
Now niaVing monarchs' necks thy ioot-stool, now 
More than thy meanest soldier taught to yield , 
An empire thou couldst crush, comimand, rebuild. 
But govern not thy pettiest p.assion, noi'. 
However deeply in men's spirits skilled. 
Look through thine own, nor curb the lust of war. 
Nor learn that tempted Fate will leave the loftiest star 

Childi: HAROi-n, Canto III. xsxviii 




MARSHAL SOUL 



KscHoi^AS Jean dk Dieu Soult, Marshal of France and Duke of Dalmati.-i, wr-i.« 
bom at Amans, March. 29th, 1769 His fathfjr Tfas an obscure notarj^ His career 
in the army "was distinguished by the most obstinate courage, and by great skill 
as a tactitian, especially in Spain, "where he filled the mos"^ "respcnsible stations 
On the return of Napoleon from Elba, he again espoused his cause, and held a 
conanaand at Waterloo After residing some years in Fvussia, in 1819 he returned 
to France, and "was again created marshal and peer by Charles S. He has held 
several exalted posts, and until recently, not"withs tanding his advanced age, 
has taken an active part in political affairs 



FEANCE. 521 

ade, and attempted entirely to destroy her commercial intercourse. 
In an attempt so vast and difficult, lie met with a thousand obstacles, 
the natural current of trade, like that of water, insinuating itself 
through every crevice and loop-hole of his system. Nevertheless, it 
succeeded to such an extent as greatly to enhance the price of nearly 
all foreign commodities, and dangerously to lessen his popularity. 

From Berlin he proceeded to Warsaw, and was received with 
exultation by the Poles, who hoped, with his assistance, to revive 
their nationalitj'-. This question, however, he kept in studied abey- 
ance, meanwhile recruiting his forces from the enthusiastic youth, 
which flocked to his standard. In January, 1807, he took the field 
against the Russians, who still kept up hostilities. He pursued 
Beningsen, the Russian commander, as far as Eylau, where he halted, 
and drew up in order of battle. The forces on each side were about 
equal. After a murderous engagement, the Russians were retreat- 
ing, when reinforced by a body of Prussians, under Lestocq. The 
engagement was renewed, but without any decisive result. A terrible 
slaughter had taken place; and Beningsen, having maintained his 
ground in the battle, was compelled on the following day to retreat. 
Both armies now waited for reinforcements, and, after some inde- 
cisive actions, met at Friedland on the 14:th of June, the anniversary 
of Marengo. The Russian general, with the greater part of his 
army, had passed the bridge at that place, to attack the forces under 
Ney. Napoleon, with his whole disposable force, hurried to his 
assistance, and assailed the Russian army in this critical and disad- 
vantageous position. Separated by the bridge, and exposed to a 
heavy cannonade, varied with charges of cavalry, they were finally 
routed and dispersed by the infantry. Thousands perished in 
attempting to swim the river, and still greater numbers were slain on 
the field. Further advantages followed, and Napoleon was soon able 
to vaunt, in a proclamation to his soldiers, "in ten days' campaign, 
you have taken one hundred and twenty pieces of cannon; killed, 
wounded, or taken sixty thousand Russians," &c. &c. 

This important victory instantly brought the Russian emperor to 
terms. On the 25th, the two sovereigns met upon a raft in the 
Niemen, and were soon on terms of the greatest intimacy and friend- 
ship. The unfortunate monarch of Prussia, arriving as a suppliant, 
and deserted by his ally, was compelled to acquiesce in the harshest 
terms. His share of Poland was erected into the independent duchy 
of Warsaw. All his territories west of the Elbe were taken from 



522 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

him. An enormous contribution was levied on his kingdom to 
defray the expenses of the war. Out of nine million subjects, he 
was permitted to retain only five. French garrisons were kept in 
several of his most important fortresses. He was compelled to shut 
his ports against England. Jerome Bonaparte became king of 
"Westphalia — his kingdom being composed of territory conquered 
mostly from Prussia. Napoleon also, with great want of magna- 
nimity, indulged in much personal abuse and vituperation of the 
defeated nation. 

Alexander was now completely won by the personal fascinations 
and ambitious views of his ally, and was inspired by similar designs 
for his own aggrandizement. A grand scheme, comprising the 
conquest of a great part of the world, was discussed at Tilsit, and 
secretly adopted. Napoleon was to commence with Spain, and 
Eussia with Sweden and Turkey. Europe was already, in their 
imaginations, dismembered and divided between them. Circum- 
stances peculiarly favoured their views. England had now nearly 
the whole continent against her. By the piratical expedition against 
the capital and fleet of Denmark, she had aroused the indignation 
of all civilized nations. Only her superiority at sea, and her insu- 
lar position, had hitherto preserved her from invasion. Sweden and 
Portugal alone continued commercial intercourse with her; and to 
suppress that of the latter. General Junot was despatched in October 
from Bayonne with thirty thousand men. 

In this hour of almost unlimited power and glory, the decline of 
Napoleon may be said to commence. He suppressed the tribunate, 
the last vestige of the revolution; decreed the establishment of 
hereditary titles ; and increased the limits of the conscription. In 
the latter part of 1807, he kept six hundred thousand soldiers under 
arms. A far nobler and more useful occupation, that of forming 
his celebrated "Code," at this time also engaged his attention. 

The condition of Spain was, at this period, almost as weak as pos- 
sible. The king, Charles IV., was ruled by his queen, and she by 
her favourite, the notorious Godoy, styled "Prince of the Peace." 
The latter connived at all the ambitious schemes of the emperor 
upon Portugal. Junot had hardly entered the Portuguese territory 
before the royal family put to sea, and took refuge in Brazil. Their 
kingdom was quietly occupied by the French general. A second 
and third army crossed the Pyrenees, and early in 1808 a large part of 
the disposable forces of France were already in Spain. Meanwhile, 



TEANCE. 523 

the besotted king and his son Ferdinand, quarrelling, sought each 
in turn the favour of Napoleon. The latter despatched a splendid 
present to the king, and with it orders to his generals to take pos- 
session of the inost important fortresses within their reach. An 
insurrection in the capital compelled the king to abdicate in favour 
of Ferdinand. Murat at once marched upon Madrid, and Ferdinand, 
vainly thinking to gain the countenance and protection of Napoleon, 
hastened to Bayonne. The king and queen also arrived, and the 
two parties mutually pleaded their cases before him ; but with such 
weakness and recrimination, that the emperor, in disgust, resolved 
to set aside the whole family, and substitute a member of his own. 
Meantime, the people of Madrid, enraged at the departure of Fer- 
dinand, rose against the French, and massacred numbers, especially 
of the stragglers and the sick. Murat and Grouchy replied by a 
wholesale military execution. Charles and Ferdinand, partly by 
threats and partly by cajolery, were induced to resign their claims 
to the throne. Napoleon then summoned an hundred and fifty 
nobles, under the title of the "Cortes," to assemble at Bayonne. 
The emperor's claim that Joseph Bonaparte should be king of Spain 
was acceded to by these, and he was forthwith proclaimed; his 
former kingdom of Naples being assigned to Murat, the brother-in- 
law of Napoleon. 

On the same day that Ferdinand abdicated, Alexander issued a 
ukase, annexing Sweden to his dominions, and took steps to gain 
possession of it. His task was an easier one than that of his ally, 
who had to overcome the resistance of a savagely patriotic nation. 
When the accession of Joseph was generally known, insurrections 
and massacres of the French were commenced throughout the king- 
dom ; and, in a short time, native forces of a formidable character 
were arrayed against them. In the North, under Cuesta and Blake, 
the insurgent armies were defeated at Eio Seco and elsewhere, with 
great slaughter; but Dupont, with a considerable force, in attempt- 
ing to reach Cadiz, was compelled to surrender to them at Baylen. 
Similar insurrections broke out in Portugal ; and the British gov- 
ernment despatched to their assistance a force of fifteen thousand 
men, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, which in August, 1808, landed 
in the Tagus. The battle of Yimiero, in which Junot, attacking 
the British with inferior forces, was defeated, soon followed. By 
the convention of Cintra, the French were transported, with all 
their plunder, to their own country. 



524 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

Austria also, affronted by lier exclusion from the treaty of Til- 
sit, and alarmed at the tokens of a universal empire, meditated the 
resumption of hostilities, and increased her forces. She was, never- 
theless, excluded from the conference of Erfurt, where the two 
leading powers again discussed and settled the affairs of Europe. 
Aware of the necessity of suppressing the Peninsular troubles 
before engaging a fresh enemy, Napoleon despatched his choicest 
forces to Spain, and early in November, 1808, crossed the Pyrenees 
in person. The insurgent forces were about an hundred thousand 
in number; but were so divided as to be easily crushed in succes- 
sion. Blake was defeated at Espinosa, Belvedere at Burgos, and 
Castanos at Tudela, The victor immediately pushed on, and took 
Madrid. The inquisition was forthwith abolished, and the convents 
were suppressed. 

He was driving the British, now a little more than twenty thou- 
sand in number, from the Peninsula, when tidings of fresh prepara- 
tions on the part of Austria reached him, and caused him to hurry 
northward without a moment's delay. Soult, whom he left in com- 
mand, pursued the army of Sir John Moore to Corunna, where, on 
the 16th of January, 1809, previous to their embarkation, a battle 
was fought, in which the French were repulsed, and the gallant com- 
mander of the English was killed by a cannon-shot. The enemy 
magnanimously erected a monument over his remains. 

The Austrian government, resolving upon a coup de main, had 
raised, by incredible exertions, an army of two hundred thousand 
men, destined to act against France and Italy ; and another to keep 
in check the emperor Alexander. The Archduke Charles, who 
commanded the former, taking the French by surprise, invaded 
Germany. Napoleon, hastening, with hardly a Frenchman, to the 
scene of action, took command of the Bavarians and other friendly 
forces, defeated the enemy at Ebensberg, and compelled a large 
division of their forces to surrender at Landshut. Hence, coming to 
the rescue of Davoust, who was engaged with the enemy at Eckmuhl, 
he took the Austrian army by surprise in their flank, and gained a 
complete and overwhelming victory. Davoust was made prince 
of Eckmuhl on the field; and another astonishing proclamation 
announced to the Parisians the capture, within a single week, of an 
hundred cannon, forty stand of colours, and fifty thousand prisoners. 

The conqueror once more took the road to Vienna; and on the 
12th of May, one month from the commencement of hostilities, 



FKANCE. 525 

received its surrender. His first act was to issue a decree, affirming 
the title of Charlemagne, his predecessor, to the states of Eome, 
and formally annexing them to the French empire, leaving to the 
Pope his title of bishop and a revenue of two millions of francs. 
The Archduke Charles, marching through Bohemia, now arrived on 
the opposite side of the Danube ; but all the bridges having been 
destroyed, it was difficult to effect an engagement. Imitating the 
movement of Alexander at the Hydaspes, Napoleon passed down to 
the woody island of Lobau, and on the 22d of May succeeded in trans- 
porting, by a temporary bridge, forty thousand of his troops to the 
opposite bank. A desperate encounter took place in the village of 
Essling. The French, wanting ammunition, and cut off from supplies 
by the partial destruction of their bridge, suffered greatly from a 
fire of artillery, and finally retreated to the island with much loss. 
In this bloody engagement fell Marshal Lannes, the duke of Monte- 
bello, a man of extraordinary bravery, called the "Roland" of the 
French army. Napoleon, who had trained him under his own eye, 
was deeply affected by the sufferings and death of this faithful fol- 
lower, who, to the last moment, deliriously repeated the name of 
his master, and called on him for assistance. The emperor, despite 
the great losses which his army had sustained, still stubbornly held 
his ground, and converted the island into a fortified camp. 

On the night of the 4th of July, being reinforced till his army 
amounted to an hundred and fifty thousand men, he again threw 
bridges over the river, and crossed it with his forces. On the 6th 
he attacked the archduke, whose army was strongly posted at 
Wagram. Several of the ablest leaders of Napoleon had been 
killed or disabled, and the event of the battle at first seemed favour- 
able to the Austrians. An hundred cannon were, however, brought 
to bear upon their centre, and Macdonald, charging with the infantry 
into the gaps caused by the artillery, broke their ranks, and won the 
day. Twenty thousand prisoners were taken. An armistice was 
concluded on the 15th, and Napoleon took up his residence at one of 
the imperial palaces near Vienna. 

During this time, events important to his interests had been every 
where transpiring. The Pope, placable enough till his own interests 
were invaded, now, using his only weapon, had launched an excom- 
munication at him, and had in consequence been carried off a pris- 
oner. He was regarded as a martyr to the cause of religion, and 
received the hearty sympathies of the Catholic world. In the Tyrol, 



526 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the insurgent mountaineers still held out. The Poles, under Ponia- 
towsky, had been defeated by Austria. England had despatched a 
powerful expedition to the Low Countries, which, however, proved 
a complete failure, leaving the bones of half its numbers on the 
deadly island of Walcheren. 

On the Peninsula, Soult, after expelling the British, and overrun- 
ning various provinces, was himself repelled from Portugal, in May, 
by Wellesley, who had returned from England, and resumed the com- 
mand. The latter, pursuing his advantage, marched into Spain, and 
with twenty thousand British and thirty thousand Spaniards, under 
Cuesta, encountered the French, equally strong, at Talavera. They 
were commanded by Victor, and King Joseph was present in person. 
On the 28th of July, the attack was commenced by the French in 
columns, and at one time was almost successful; but owing to the 
able dispositions of the English commander, and the strength of his 
position, they were repulsed, and the advantage remained with the 
allies. Wellesley, however, was compelled to fall back into Portugal. 

Negotiations for peace, meanwhile, went on at Vienna. Alexander 
had shown himself, if not a faithless, yet a lukewarm ally. Napoleon 
felt the necessity of some firmer union with one, at least, of the great 
powers of Europe. Moderate terms therefore were granted to the 
defeated nation, and by secret agreement, the alliance was to be 
ratified by the marriage of the victor to a princess of the royal house 
of Austria. Other circumstances had strengthened this conclusion. 
He had no heirs by Josephine, and the son of Louis, whom he had 
destined to be his successor, died in infancy. The unhappy empress, 
after vainly attempting to avert her fate, yielded an apparent con- 
sent, and was present at the solemn dissolution of their marriage. 
She retired to Malmaison ; and in March, 1810, Napoleon was married 
to the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis. 




ivIAKcHAL LAKKES 



Jean Lannes, Marshal of France, and Duke of Montebello, was born in Kor 
rriandy, April, 1769, of humble j>arentage, his father being a mechanic. By his 
sconderful daring and impetuosity, he gained the titles of the "P^oland" and 
the "Ajax" of the French arnay After a career of extraordinary brilliancy 
and glory, he "was mortally wounded in May, 1609, at the disastrous battle of 
Esslmg. Napoleon, upon whose nanae he called deliriously while he survived, 
was affected to tears by the loss of this faithful comrade and servant, whose 
military genius he had fostered with personal assiduity "I foui^d him a dwarl." 
said he "I lost him a giant 



FRANCE. 527 

THE DECLINE AND FALL OP THE EMPIRE. 

The power and glory of Napoleon had now, apparently, reacted 
their point of culmination. His territories were greatly enlarged, 
and the firmness and perpetuation of his dynasty seemed to be 
secured by the new alliance. But various and apparently insuffi- 
cient causes were gradually undermining the vast structure which 
had been reared too hastily and wilfully to be permanent. His 
arbitrary measures, and, in particular, such as were depressing com- 
merce, had alienated the attachment of great masses of his subjects, 
particularly those whose interests especially suffered. His army, 
still by far the most formidable in the world, had lost the early and 
resistless enthusiasm of the republic, and found its devotion to the 
person of the emperor an unequal substitute. His generals, incom- 
parable for bravery and military science, were, with few exceptions, 
more attached to their own aggrandizement and to the spoils they 
had acquired, than to the views of their sovereign or his personal 
schemes of ambition. 

His brother Louis, unwilling to enforce, to the ruin of his subjects, 
the utmost severity of the continental system, was compelled, by ill- 
usage, to resign his kingdom of Holland, and to behold it formally 
incorporated with the French empire. Sweden, which, by the depo- 
sition of her monarch, was in search of a sovereign, made choice 
of Marshal Bernadotte, whom Napoleon, distrusting his friendship, 
allowed, with much reluctance, to accept the throne. In Spain, 
Joseph succeeded in 1810 in reducing the revolted provinces; the 
guerilla or partisan warfare being, however, still continued. Massena, 
with eighty thousand men, pursued Wellington with thirty thousand 
British, in Portugal, until the latter, stopping at the almost impreg- 
nable "lines of Torres Vedras," opposed an obstinate resistance. 
After losing a great part of his army by disease, famine, and fatigue, 
the French commander was compelled to retreat into Spain, leaving 
destruction wherever he passed. Marmont, who succeeded him, 
accomplished nothing; and Soult, who in turn took the command, 
sustained an important reverse at Albuera. 



528 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

A far more formidable conflict was approacliing. Napoleon, who 
began to see the impolicy of allowing the Kussian emperor to annex 
Turkey to his dominions, had refused even at Erfurt to sanction a 
plan for the conquest of his ally; and a coldness on the part of 
Alexander resulted. The occupation of the duchy of Oldenburg, 
pertaining to a connection of the latter, was a further cause of ill- 
feeling. The British influence again prevailed at St. Petersburg, and 
the continental system was abrogated in Eussia. Both parties, while 
carrying on negotiations, made gigantic preparations for the event 
of war, and concentrated large armies on their frontiers. Bernadotte, 
who had impudently demanded Norway as the price of his adhesion 
to Napoleon, was provoked by an invasion of his territories into an 
alliance with Eussia. Turkey kept quiet, and England, of course, 
continued hostile. But all the remainder of Europe seemed at the 
disposal of Napoleon in the ensuing contest. France, Italy, Holland, 
Germany, Prussia, and Austria, were all prepared, some from fear 
and some from attachment, to place their forces at his command. 

Napoleon, it is probable, sincerely wished fOr peace, but not at the 
expense of his ambition or his interests. But negotiation, both 
public and private, proved ineffectual to reconcile the conflicting 
interests, and early in 1812 war seemed inevitable. The French 
emperor, m May, held a levee at Dresden, of the various powers 
whose services he had demanded. Probably so brilliant and aiigust 
a court was never assembled to do homage to any human being. 
Among the sovereigns, who "jostled each other in his ante-chamber, " 
might be seen the emperor of Austria, the king of Prussia, and a 
long array of lesser potentates. "The reunion of Dresden seemed 
a parting pageant, given to Napoleon by Fortune ere she abandoned 
him. The richest incense that could be burned to human pride was 
there offered to Bonaparte." It was evident, however, that he could 
no longer rely upon the enthusiastic support of those distinguished 
chiefs who had served him so long and faithfully, and on whose 
earnest devotion he had hitherto implicitly relied. Having acquired 
fortunes, and become the masters of families, they were less disposed 
than formerly to tempt fortune, and greatly preferred the enjoyment 
of what they had already acquired. At a private supper to which 
the emperor, then at Dantzic, invited Murat, Berthier, and Eapp, 
this feeling was plainly expressed. The three generals sat with 
grave reserve. " I see very clearly, gentlemen, " said Napoleon, "that 
you are no longer desirous of going to war. Murat would prefer 




NAtOLELiN oJr OWNING THE EMPKESb JOSEPHINE 

"But Dot even from the Head of the Catholic Church would Nnpoleon eoi3 
sent to receive as a boon the golden symbol of sovereignty, which he was 
sensible he owed solely to his own unparalleled train of military and civil sue 
cesses The crown having been blessed by the Pope, Napoleon took it from 
the altar v/ith his own hands, and placed it on his brows He then put the 
diadem on the head of his Empress as if determined to show that his author- 
iry wi=: th ° rhild of hi?^ own actions ■' — ycorr's Life of Napoleon 




THE PRIVATE SUPPEK AT DANTZIC 

v.p^r^::::::iir Lv^rtietHrt:^ ^^^--^^^^ — - --- 

farther warfare ,See page 528.' ""'"^ *^^'" disinclination to 



FEANCE. 529 

never again to leave the fine climate of liis kingdom; Bertliier 
wants to hunt over his estates at Grosbois ; and Kapp is impatient 
to return to his hotel in Paris." — It was very true. A silence fol- 
lowed, first broken by Eapp, who honestly confessed the fact. 

On learning the ineffectual result of his last private embassy, the 
emperor immediately betook himself to his immense army beyond 
the Vistula. This gigantic force, probably the most numerous that 
has ever been collected, was estimated at nearly eight hundred 
thousand men. The difl&culty of supporting such a mass was enor- 
mous, and compelled Napoleon to waste upon the comTnissariat that 
attention which he should have devoted entirely to the campaign. 
On the 24th of June, 1812, he crossed the Niemen, unchallenged 
save by a single Cossack, and marched in pursuit of the Eussian 
army. The latter, however, retreated without attempting any 
defence, and he entered the city of Wilna without opposition. A 
large force, under Macdonald, kept along the Baltic. The Eussians, 
who, in two large armies, were commanded by De Tolly and Bagration, 
were divided ; an opportunity of cutting off the latter was lost by 
the insubordination of Jerome, who was, in consequence, sent home 
in disgrace. For two weeks, the French army, encumbered by its 
own bulk, and the difficulty of support, remained at "Wilna. Napo- 
leon then marched upon Smolensko, and, after a stubborn resistance 
on the road, and a murderous assault, gained possession of its burning 
ruins. In despite the remonstrances of his generals, with one hun- 
dred and twenty thousand men he pushed on for Moscow, now 
eighty leagues distant. 

Kutusoff had by this time been appointed to the command of the 
Eussians, and, with a somewhat superior force, awaited him at Boro- 
dino, on the river Moskwa. On the 6th of September, the action 
commenced; the Eussians being strongly fortified and the French 
attacking. Several of the French leaders were disabled early in 
the action, and it was only after three severe battles, Bagration having 
fallen, that the Eussians were beaten from their intrenchments, and 
compelled to abandon the field. Eight of the French generals fell, 
and the only trophies of this severely-contested victory were a few 
broken cannon, and less than a thousand prisoners. Ney, for his 
heroic conduct, was immediately created "prince of the Moskwa." 

The fate of Moscow, however, was decided. On the lith of Septem- 
ber Napoleon entered it, and took up his residence in the Kremlin, 
the ancient palace of the czars. He did not long enjoy his new 
34 



530 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

possessions. Fires broke out in several quarters, and on the 17tli 
spread over the entire city. Napoleon with difficulty escaped, and 
beheld from a short distance this magnificent spectacle, which too 
truly foreboded the frustration of his schemes. It seems doubtful 
whether this destruction of the ancient capital of Russia was the 
work of private incendiaries or of Rostopchin, the governor. It was 
now evidently impossible for the French army to winter here, as the 
emperor had intended, and he instantly conceived the daring idea 
of marching upon St. Petersburg. But his generals, weary of war, 
would not concur in this audacious scheme : they counselled a retreat : 
while Napoleon, with apparent infatuation, lingered for a month in 
the Kremlin, amid the ruins of the city, vainly waiting an answer 
to his proposals for peace. 

On the 19th of October the army, heavily encumbered with spoils, 
commenced its retreat — that horrible retreat which exhausts all con- 
ceptions of human suffering and despair. On the road to Kalouga, 
a sanguinary engagement took place between a portion of the hostile 
armies ; but the main bodies, under KutusofP and Napoleon, as yet 
cautiously avoided each other. The French army, in three divisions, 
marched toward Smolensko, suffering terribly from cold and famine, 
and harassed by clouds of Cossacks, who hung upon their rear, and 
cut off every straggler from the ranks. The trophies and the plun- 
der were abandoned in the deep snow, through which the army 
could hardly force its way. Arriving at Smolensko, reduced, in 
effective numbers, to a third of the conquerors of Moscow, they 
found famine awaiting them, and hostile armies surrounding them 
on all sides. The conduct of Ney, who commanded the rear-guard, 
was, during the whole retreat, a miracle of courage, talent, and for- 
titude. With five thousand men, he kept Kutusoff, with eighty 
thousand, at bay, and brought his division to Napoleon. The 
'' Grand Army, " now reduced to fourteen thousand men, worn out 
with privation and fatigue, still retreated, seeking to escape the 
enemy by crossing the Beresina. Meeting by chance the army of 
Victor, they resolved, thus reinforced, to attempt the passage. Two 
frail bridges were thrown across the stream, and a portion of the 
army crossed in safety. During this terrible passage, the Russian 
army, in overwhelming force, was pressing on their rear. Great 
numbers were drowned by the breaking of one of the bridges, and 
by being forced into the water. Their bodies were almost immedi- 
ately frozen into the wintry stream, and when counted by the Rus- 




.lARSHAL NET 



LIirTiAJL Net, Marshal of France, acd Prince of the iloskwa, -wVas; boiu of 
obscure parentage, at Sarre Louis, in 1770. During the whole of Napoleon's 
career, l(e ^was distinguished hy such dauntless valour as to receive iroui hi.-i 
sovereign the most implicit confidence, and justly to earn the title of the 
"J3raveat pf the Brave." His conduct in the terrible retreat of Russia was, 
perhaps, the most hertjio of any Avnich is recorded in history His high mili- 
tary qualities -were equalled by his humanity and tindness of heart. He led 
the last ojiarge of the Guard at Waterloo, and on the second return of thi 
Bourbons, "was executed by the cov^ardly rulers who had been reinstated l>y 
foreign arms. ''Thus," says Col. Napiej-, a magnanimous English historian, "be 
Avho had fought five HUHDREn BATTiEs for France — not one against her — wis 
sliot a,s a ti'aitor 



FSANCE. 



531 



sians in the following spring, were found to amount to thirty or 
forty thousand. 

Tidings now came of disturbances in Paris ; and Napoleon, leaving 
the relics of his forces to struggle with fresh disasters, departed 
secretly on a sledge, and hastened, almost in disguise, to his own 
dominions. The vast army, of nearly five hundred thousand, which 
he had brought into action, was almost annihilated. It has been 
computed, by accurate judges, that of this immense force one hun- 
dred and twenty-five thousand were slain in battle, one hundred 
and thirty-two thousand perished from cold and famine, and one 
hundred and ninety-three thousand were made prisoners. Though 
many of the national trophies were destroyed, the Eussians took 
seventy-five eagles or colours and nine hundred cannon. 

All Europe, taking heart at the misfortunes of its late master, 
now seemed ready to rise against him. The Prussians, under Yorck, 
deserted Macdonald. Murat, forsaking the remains of the army 
intrusted to his charge, fled to his own kingdom of Naples, ere long 
to betray his master, and join the enemy. Austria and England 
entered into alliance with Russia, Prussia almost immediately joined 
them, and the French were compelled to adopt the Elbe, instead of 
the Oder, as a line of defence. Bernadotte and the Swedes, subsi- 
dized by England, joined the hostile alliance. 

Napoleon, on his part, made every effort of preparation and 
defence. To supply the loss of those who had perished in the 
snows of Russia, the conscription was drawn for years in antici- 
pation. In April, 1813, he joined the army of forty thousand men, 
which yet remained in Germany, with eighty thousand young con- 
scripts, entirely ignorant of war — "sucking pigs," as an old general 
termed them, in despair. The allies, in great force, advanced 
against him, but were defeated, under Blucher, by the courageous 
3^outh, whom Napoleon had already inspired with his own hardi- 
hood and enthusiasm. He immediately occupied the disputed cities 
of Leipsic and Dresden. Encouraged by these successes, he refused 
to accede to the terms of Austria, who now demanded, as the price 
of her neutrality, a considerable augmentation of territory. At 
Bautzen, on the 21st of May, he again attacked the enemy, defeated 
them, in a position of great force, and drove them into Bohemia. 
The Russian and Prussian armies retreated into Austria, and Napo- 
leon, still refusing the demands of the latter, saw his father-in-law 
conclude a formal alliance with his enemies. Austria had an army 



532 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

of two hundred thousand men ready for action ; tlie Eussian and 
Prussian armies were reinforced; yet the emperor resolved to hold 
out at Dresden. General Moreau, long banished for conspiracy, had 
now entered the service of Alexander, and was directing the enemies 
of his country, while Bernadotte, with his kingdom, was also in 
arms against his former master. 

On the 2ist of August the Austrians, under Prince Schwartzen- 
burg, in overwhelming force, attacked Dresden, which was gallantly 
defended by twenty thousand French; when Napoleon, returning 
from the pursuit of Blucher, repulsed them. Two daj^s afterwards, 
he completely defeated them, with the loss of their cannon and 
twenty thousand prisoners. Moreau, his ancient rival, was mortally 
wounded in the action. This advantage was, in a great degree, 
counterbalanced by the misfortune of his general, Yandamme, who, 
with his division, was compelled to surrender to a superior force of 
Russians and Prussians. The allies now pursued a singular system 
of tactics, recommended it is said by Bernadotte. At the approach 
of the emperor, they invariably retreated ; but when engaged with 
his generals, put forth their utmost efforts, and frequently ventured 
to give battle. Thus, Oudinot was defeated at Buren by Berna- 
dotte, and Macdonald by Blucher, at the Katzbach, " The campaigns 
round Dresden resembled what Homer recounts of the siege of 
Troy. When Achilles rushed forth, all was rout, fight, and slaugh- 
ter; when he retired, his enemies showed courage, and never failed 
to gain the advantage." He was soon compelled, by the increasing 
forces of the enemy, to transfer his quarters to Leipsic. 

On the very day of his arrival (October 16th), the allies, in over- 
whelming force, began to close around it, but, after some desperate 
fighting, gained little advantage. On the 18th, the French, attacked 
by three times their number, made a most gallant defence, and suc- 
ceeded, amid great slaughter, in maintaining their position. It was, 
however, evidently necessary to retreat still farther; and on the 
following day, with nearly three hundred thousand of the enemy 
pressing upon them, the remains of the French army commenced to 
defile over a frail bridge that served as their only outlet from the 
city. "With a few troops, Macdonald and the gallant Prince Ponia- 
towsky defended this disastrous retreat. By the premature destruc- 
tion of the bridge, great numbers perished, and others remained 
captive in the city. The French army lost, on this terrible day, 
two hundred cannon and fifty thousand men. 



FEANCE. 



633 



Except the ancient limits of France, little was now left to liim 
who had so lately been dictator of Europe. Holland, Italy, and 
most of liis other dependencies espoused the cause of the enemy. 
In Spain, the English, under Wellington, had driven the remainder 
of his troops across the Pyrenees. The allies, in overwhelming 
numbers, were on the frontiers of France itself, yet Napoleon refused 
their proposition of making the Rhine his boundary. 

A movement, equally formidable to his power, was also com- 
mencing within his own kingdom. Both the royalists and republi- 
cans had now conceived hopes of his entire overthrow, and laid 
plans for the substitution of their own systems. Instead, however, 
of conciliating the opposition, he resolved to suppress it by force, 
and at once dissolved the feeble legislative assembly, which had 
ventured to offer a remonstrance. 

The garrisons which he had left in Germany were one by one 
reduced, and, under Bulow and Blucher, the allied forces crossed 
the Ehine, while Wellington advanced from the Pyrenees. On the 
25th of January, 1814, Napoleon left his capital, to defend, with 
feeble and diminished forces, the empire that yet remained to him. 
Schwartzenburg and Blucher, with an hundred and fifty thousand 
men, were already on their way to Paris. The French army was 
less than half their number, consisting mostly of raw recruits. 
Nevertheless, the emperor, fighting hand to hand with the enemy, 
drove Blucher from Brienne, the scene of his own youthful studies 
and education. On the 1st of February, the latter, reinforced by 
Schwartzenburg, and aided by the presence of Alexander and 
Frederick of Prussia, attacked the French at La Pothiere with over- 
whelming force. After an heroic resistance, the latter were compelled 
to retreat, under cover of night. The allies now continually rose in 
their demands, and refused peace, except on condition that France 
should be reduced to its ancient limits. Napoleon, refusing their 
terms, hastened, with the wreck of his army, in pursuit of Blucher, 
who had made a hurried march towards Paris, defeated him at 
Champaubert and Montmirail, with the loss of two-thirds of his 
army, and drove him with the remainder in fiill retreat. On the 
18th, he also defeated the Austrians at Montoreau. Schwartzenburg 
retreated, but Blucher, with a fresh force of an hundred thousand, 
resolved to effect a union with the Russians, and renew the march 
to Paris. To defeat this scheme, Napoleon, marching against the 
Russians, gained, at great loss, a victory at Craonne. At Laon, 



534: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

however, by tlie unsldlfulness of Marmont, he experienced a severe 
reverse, and lost such a portion of his force as to render further 
resistance almost hopeless. 

The allies, elated by their success, now refused to treat at all, and 
from all directions pushed their forces toward the capital. The 
royalists, also, began to assume a bolder and more open attitude, and 
Bordeaux, supported by Wellington, declared for the Bourbons. 
Their partisans in Paris, directed by the astute and treacherous Tal- 
leyrand, opened a negotiation with the allied sovereigns in behalf 
of the exiled family, and gained the support of Alexander. Kapo- 
leon, still obstinately defending his country, was defeated, with the 
miserable remains of his army, at Arcis. Still undismayed, he 
marched to surprise the allied forces in their rear. Marmont and 
Mortier, however, who were to have joined him, were compelled by 
the advance of the enemy to retreat upon Paris, and on the 30th 
of March, with a scanty force, attempted to defend it from the over- 
whelming forces of the allies. A gallant attempt to withstand their 
attack was made, and many of the young pupils of the Polytechnic 
school died fighting bravely in defence of their country ; but resist- 
ance was in vain ; Paris capitulated, and on the 31st, Alexander 
and Frederick entered the city. 

Napoleon, scarcely able to credit the loss of his capital, again 
vainly attempted to treat with the victors. But the caiise of the 
Bourbons, supported by a powerful army of foreigners, and by the 
general weariness of war, prevailed; the senate, convoked by Tal- 
leyrand, voted the crown forfeited by various misdemeanours, and 
appointed a provisional government. The emperor, now almost 
deserted, made one more appeal for assistance to his marshals, and 
on their refusal, declared his willingness to abdicate in favour of his 
son. This offer was refused, and after beholding nearly all his 
friends and ofl&cers desert to the enemy, he signed an unconditional 
abdication at Fontainbleau on the 11th of April, 1814. 

He had utterly refused to stipulate for any terms of personal 
interest; but by the influence of his former friend, Alexander, the 
title of Emperor was still secured to him, and the little island of 
Elba was allotted as the scene of his sovereignty. Thither he 
repaired, for a few months to exercise his talents in petty schemes 
and difl&culties, until his destiny called him, for a brief period, to 
figure for the last time in that mightier and more tragical scene, 
which closed the great drama of the fortunes of Europe. 



TEANCE. 



535 



THE RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS, AND THE "HUNDRED 
DATS" OF NAPOLEON. 

Louis XVIII.,* who had thus been elevated by the arms of 
foreigners to the ancient throne of his ancestors, was a man of 
moderate intellect, and more adapted to the life of a retired scholar, 
than to the sovereignty of a great and impetuous nation. His first 
accession was, however, eagerly welcomed by a people suffering 
under the worst calamities of war, and desirous of some interval of 
rest. The army alone, by its dark and sullen demeanour, evinced 
dissatisfaction with the change. The manner of his first political 
act, that of granting a charter to the nation, was unpopular, as recog- 
nising its only source in the will of the new sovereign. Discontent 
was also strongly felt at the reduction of France within her former 
limits — a misfortune, whether real or supposed, only to be ascribed 
in reality to him who had enlarged them. 

Other and more real grievances soon supervened. By attempting 
to restore the more bigoted and odious attributes of the church, the 
court disgusted and alienated the liberal and intellectual. A serious 
insurrection was excited by the refusal to bury an actress in conse- 
crated ground, and the government was compelled to yield. 
Eestrictions on the press, and the constant dread of the emigrants' 
resuming their forfeited estates, produced farther discontent and 
uneasiness. The strange mixture of an ancient and absurd noblesse, 
and of blood-stained revolutionists, which composed the new court 
and ministry, inspired ridicule and distrust, rather than confidence 
or respect. 

The first reactionary movement was made by the old Jacobin 
party, which, after being so many years repressed by the strong 
hand of Napoleon, started into a new and formidable existence under 
the feebler and more obnoxious sway of the Bourbons. Carnot, the 
old revolutionary minister at war, now holding an important of&ce, 



* The unhappy son of Louis XVI., a mere child, who had perished from ill-treat- 
ment during the Revolution, was enrolled by the royalists as Louis XVII. 



536 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, 

was at the head of this conspiracj. Fouch^, the wily and -unprinci- 
pled ex-minister of police, was also deeply implicated. But all their 
projects seemed likely to fall to the ground for want of a leader 
who could influence the army. After vainly attempting to procure 
a chief elsewhere, they turned their thoughts to Elba, and com- 
menced negotiations for replacing Napoleon at the head of affairs. 
Important concessions to the republican spirit were, undoubtedly, to 
be the price of his reinstatement on the throne. Murat, who still held 
the kingdom of Naples by a precarious tenure, again opened com- 
munications with his brother-in-law, whom he had lately betrayed. 

The plot being ripe, Napoleon, on the 26th of February, 1815, 
embarked from his little island, with a force of about a thousand 
men, to undertake the reconquest of France. He landed at Cannes 
on the 1st of March, and at once commenced his march toward the 
capital. At Grenoble he encountered a force of three thousand 
troops, and throwing himself in their midst, was received with the 
greatest enthusiasm. The government, now thoroughly alarmed, 
began to take measures for self-defence, and the Comte d'Artois, 
the king's brother, vainly attempted to harangue into fidelity the 
troops at Lyons. "You deceive yourself," said an old veteran; "no 
man here will fight against his father: I will cry Vive NajpoleonP^ 
The soldiers welcomed and mingled with those of their ancient com- 
mander. Here he appointed the ministers of a new government, and 
on the 13th resumed his march, the troops declaring in his favour 
wherever he came. Ney, who had gone with a considerable force 
to intercept him, was won over by a letter addressed to "the bravest 
of the brave," and forthwith joined him, with all his troops. At 
Melun, the last army of the royalists, commanded by Macdonald, 
was posted to repel the invader. Almost unattended, he drove into 
their midst, and was received with a general shout of " Yive 
Napoleon P'' 

Louis, anticipating this result, on the 20th of March fled from 
Paris with a small escort, and succeeded in reaching Ghent in 
safety. His victorious rival, entering Paris on the evening of the 
same day, again took possession of the Tuileries, and was welcomed 
by the principal contrivers of this wonderful conspiracy. "Never, 
in his bloodiest and most triumphant field of battle, had the terrible 
ascendancy of Napoleon's genius appeared half so predominant as 
during his march, or rather his journey from Cannes to Paris. He 
who left the same coast, disguised like a slave, and weeping like a 



FKANCE. 



537 



woman, for fear of assassination, returned in grandeur like that of 
the returning wave, which, the farther it has retreated, is rolled back 
upon the shore with the more terrific and overwhelming violence. 
His look seemed to possess the pretended power of northern magi- 
cians, and blunted swords and spears." 

Reinstated on his throne, but holding it by an insecure tenure, 
he naturally desired peace, as well for the interest of his kingdom 
as of himself. But the allied powers returned no answer to his 
overtures; and the "Congress of Vienna," which was still sitting, 
(to disnfember and prey upon the weaker countries,) resolved on 
unrelenting hostilit3^ Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia 
agreed that each should furnish an hundred and fifty thousand 
troops for the approaching attempt to destroy their ancient conqueror. 
The actual number that was levied exceeded, however, a million. 

The position of Napoleon, indeed, appeared almost hopeless, from 
the commencement. France, exhausted by murderous wars in other 
countries, was absolutely destitute of the bone and sinew neces- 
sary to defend her. The failure of Murat, who, threatened with the 
loss of his throne, had prematurely taken up arms, and been utterly 
ruined, was a great blow to the cause of the restored sovereign. His 
assistance, if deferred a little longer, would have been invaluable. 
The constitution which the emperor now granted, was objectionable 
to the liberals, on the ground that (like that of Louis, which it much 
resembled) it professed simply to emanate from the imperial will, 
without recognising the authority of the nation. The Parisians, 
though fond of spectacles, viewed with coldness the splendid 
pageantry of the "Champ de Mai," which celebrated the organ- 
ization of the new government. The chamber of peers, mostly 
composed of his generals or personal friends, was tolerably devoted 
to the interest of Napoleon ; but the chamber of deputies or com- 
mons contained a strong infusion of the ancient Jacobinical feeling. 

The immense armies of the allies were now put in motion, and 
the whole eastern frontier was menaced with invasion. By desperate 
exertions, a force for the national defence was raised, and from this 
Napoleon selected about an hundred and thirty thousand soldiers 
for his last fatal campaign. The first enemies to be encountered 
were the English and Prussians, who, with greatly superior forces, 
seemed to await his attack. After some masterly manoeuvres, on 
the 16th of June he engaged the Prussian force of eighty thousand 
men, under Blucher, at Ligny. Though superior in number, they 



538 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

were defeated, with a loss of ten thousand men, and compelled to 
retreat. On the same day Ney, with a portion of the army, engaged 
the British at Quatre Bras, but after obstinate fighting, no decisive 
result was attained. Wellington, however, retreated towards Brus- 
sels, and took up his position near the village of Waterloo, a few 
miles from the city. Napoleon followed him, and on the 18th of 
June, the two armies, each about seventy thousand in number, 
encamped opposite to each other. Both were distressed, but espe- 
cially the French, by the tempestuous weather to which, for some 
days previous, they had been exposed. The forces under the com- 
mand of Wellington were composed about equally of British and 
continental troops. Those of Napoleon were all that remained of 
that splendid army, so long the terror of Europe. The plan of each 
commander was exceedingly simple; Wellington being only intent 
on holding his position until reinforced by Blucher ; and Napoleon 
staking his last hopes on the desperate attempt to destroy the two 
armies in succession before they could effect a junction. 

A little before noon, the action commenced with a furious can- 
nonade, and a desperate attack, led by Jerome, upon the Chateau 
of Hougoumont, occupied by the British. The latter succeeded in 
holding this important post. An attack on the English centre was 
equally unfortunate. The charging columns had penetrated the 
forces of the enemy, but being attacked on all sides, lost many of 
their number in the fight, as well as two thousand prisoners, who 
were surrounded. The British cavalry were, in their turn, repulsed 
with much loss. They also lost the farm of La Haye Sainte, an 
important position. On the right, the French cavalry made repeated 
charges upon the squares of the British, which, however, they were 
unable to break. In repeating this desperate attempt again and 
again, the greater part of them were destroyed. The Prussians, 
under Bulow, had now reached the field, and attacked the French 
right; and Napoleon, at last aware of the approach of Blucher 
with an overwhelming force, resolved on a last and desperate effort 
to destroy the English before he could arrive. The imperial guard, 
who had been hitherto kept in reserve, were formed into two 
columns, and ordered to charge the English line. To the exhorta- 
tions of their sovereign, the}' answered, for the last time, with cries 
of Vive VEmpereur! and, led by the celebrated Ney, moved on to the 
attack. The fire which they encountered, however, was too heavy 
to admit of success, and in spite of the efforts of their heroic leader, 




AN OFFICER OF THE lilPERIAL GUARD OF NAPOLEON, 



tN FUr.r, ONIFOULI 



FEANCE. 539 

tlie J were compelled to retreat in confusion. The rout now became 
o-eneral, and the flying ranks were fiercely pursued by the army of 
Blacher, which had just arrived. Great numbers of the defenceless 
fugitives were slaughtered by the Prussians, yet smarting under 
ancient and recent defeat. Many deserted or were dispersed, and 
probably not half of the army then engaged was ever again assem- 
bled under arms. 

The defeated emperor hastened to Paris, aware that the Jacobins 
in the assembly would take advantage of the crisis to attempt the 
overthrow of his government. This apprehension was better founded 
than his reliance on his own authority. Indeed, it was evident to 
all, that a second abdication alone could preserve France from the 
miserable condition of a conquered country. His brother Lucien 
vainly pleaded his cause before the assembly, and entreated their 
fidelity. "We have been faithful," answered La Fayette; "we have 
followed your brother to the sands of Egypt — to the snows of Eus- 
sia. The bones of Frenchmen, scattered in every region, attest our 
fidelity." In a general council held by the emperor, he reiterated 
his views, and delicately suggested abdication as the only remedy 
for the impending evils. The unfortunate sovereign, distracted by 
various counsels, and unwilling to quit the scene of his deepest inter- 
ests, could not effect a determination. "The best counsel," says his 
biographer, "was, perhaps, that of an American gentleman, who 
advised him instantly to retreat to the North American States, where 
he could not, indeed, enjoy the royal privileges and ceremonial, to 
which he was more attached than philosophy warrants, but where 
that general respect would have been paid to him, which his splendid 
talents and wonderfal career of adventure were so well calculated 
to enforce." On the 22d of June, only four days after the battle of 
Waterloo, in compliance with the eager desire of the assembly, he 
made an abdication in favour of his infant son, the " King of Rome." 
The deputies, though refusing formally to acknowledge the new 
sovereign, proclaimed him by general acclamation. Carnot still 
cherished the hope of resistance, and presented to the assembly an 
exaggerated statement of the available forces yet remaining. This 
was furiously contradicted by ISTey: "Not a man of the Guard," he 
cried, "will ever rally again. I myself commanded them — I myself 
witnessed their total extermination, ere I left the field of battle; 
they are annihilated. The enemy are at JSTovelles, with eighty thou- 
sand men. They may, if they please, be in Paris in six days. There 



540 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

is no safety for France, but in instant propositions for peace," When 
this fiery and determined commander could speak thus, resistance 
might well be deemed hopeless ; yet Napoleon, with an honourable 
desire to serve his country in the worst emergency, still lingered in 
the vicinity of Paris, and offered his services once more to meet the 
enemy, or to defend the capital to the last extremity. These pro- 
posals were rejected by the provisional government, which feared to 
intrust him again with the means of acquiring power. He left 
Paris, and on the 3d of July arrived at Eochefort, where two frigates 
had been placed at his disposal to convey him to America. 

But the coast was lined with English cruisers ; the Bellerophon 
line-of-battle ship was blockading the port; it was impossible to 
force a passage ; and he would not consent to any plans for a secret 
escape. In answer to his negotiations for a passage to America, the 
captain of the English ship suggested to his officers the propriety of 
his seeking an asylum in England, though refusing to make any 
definite pledges concerning his reception. Kejecting, therefore, the 
warlike proposals of the relics of his army, which could only have 
brought further devastation on France and destruction to themselves, 
he embarked in the Bellerophon, and on the 24th arrived at Tor- 
bay, on the coast of Devonshire. He had already despatched the 
brief and well-known letter to the Prince Eegent, invoking the hos- 
pitality of England. It was, however, determined by that mean- 
spirited prince and his advisers to keep him close prisoner during 
the remainder of his life. He was transferred to the distant island 
of St. Helena, where, after a few miserable years, exposed to the 
annoyances of an impertinent keeper, he expired on the 5th of May, 
1821. His remains were interred on the spot; but many years 
after, in compliance with his will, were transferred to Paris, and 
deposited, with magnificent and imposing ceremonies, beneath the 
great dome of the Invalides. 




THE DISINTERMENT OF THE REMAINS OE NAPOLEON 



"It whs iude'rd Niij'O.-^ou," shvs aijoiu^r eye-witnebs, M. Eiiia:LU^J ile L.-iS 
Cases; "NapoiTOn d'-roid of life, but aot destroyed! . One \rou":d aimost 

have said that he was stiji at that last day of his career of toils aud dangers , 
at that first day of eternity. — — — — G-eneral Bertrand gazed upon him. 
like one -who 'was ready to sint to the earth Ivlany sobbed convulsively Other.s 
rem.aine.d in silent sadness, their eyes filled v/ith moisture. The iace of tli--' 
voung Comte de Chabot was deluged with tears ' — HisToiaE nv. t 'V.upy.-Ri-yjK 
Napoi-eon 



FEANCE. 



541 



tjiiAjri.iliii AiV, 



THE SECOND EESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS, AND THEIR 

EXPULSION, LOUIS PHILIPPE, AND HIS EXPULSION. 

— THE REPUBLIC. 



The great actor having vanislied from tlie scene, succeeding events 
appear comparatively tame and unimportant. After tlie departure 
of Napoleon, the provisional government vainly attempted to excite 
an enthusiasm for the defence of the country. To their exhorta- 
tions, the soldiers answered sullenly, "Why should we fight any 
more? "VVe have no longer an emperor!" The royalists, encour- 
aged by the approach of the allies, also made demonstrations in some 
of the provinces, though not daring to move openly in Paris. 
Meanwhile, the remaining forces, under Soult and Grouchy, were 
compelled to retreat upon the capital, whither, on the 1st of July, 
they were followed by the allied armies. After some fighting, in 
which the French displayed all their accustomed bravery, an armis- 
tice was concluded, and on the 7th, after the city had been completely 
evacuated by its defenders, the hostile forces took military possession. 

The allied powers refused to acknowledge the provisional govern- 
ment or the Chambers, (which accordingly were forcibly dissolved ;) 
and sullenly announced that Louis XVIII. woilld reenter his capital. 
On the 8th he entered, accompanied by some of the most distin- 
guished marshals, and, protected by foreign arms, again took posses- 
sion of his crown and palaces. Severe conditions were exacted from 
the defeated nation. Several of her most important fortresses were 
taken from her, and others held for a time by foreign garrisons. 
Large contributions of money were exacted, and the splendid museum, 
the finest in the world, was stripped of its treasures, which were 
restored to the nations from which they had been originally taken. 

The course of the new government, thus again imposed iipon the 
nation, was even more unsatisfactory and irritating to the people. 
The brave Marshal Ney was privately executed. La Bedoyere, one 
of the prime supporters of the emperor, shared the same fate. Lava- 
lette was saved only by the devoted and heroic conduct of his 
wife, who remained in prison while he escaped in disguise. Toward 



542 ''■■^HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the close of the year, a general amnesty was proclaimed. The 
unpopularity of Louis continued. He substituted the white flag in 
place of the tri-colour, to which the nation was much attached; and, 
to gratify the ultra royalists, violated, in several particulars, the 
charter which he had granted. The legislative body became gradu- 
ally divided into two parties, which, however varying in principle, 
have ever since retained their appellations. The "extreme right," 
or ultra royalists, were continually opposed by the " extreme left," or 
ultra liberals. The moderate party occupied the "centre." 

The distracted condition of Spain, so long in a state of civil war- 
fare, determined the French government to interfere with an armed 
force; and in 1823 the duke d'Angouleme, with a large army, 
marched into that country, advanced from Madrid to Cadiz, and 
gratified the national vanity of the French by an appearance of con- 
trol and dictation in the political affairs of the Peninsula. 

On the 16th of September, 1824, the king died, and was succeeded 
by his brother, the Comte d'Artois, under the title of Charles X. 
The late king, though sometimes over-influenced by his royalist 
relatives, was in reality a man of moderate views, and probably 
sincerely desirous of the welfare of the people. His successor repre- 
sented the worst class of legitimatists and uncompromising royalists. 
His first measure was a judicious one. By granting annuities to 
those whose lands had been seized by government during the Eevo- 
lution, he assured the title of the possessors, and removed one for- 
midable source of opposition, and the temptation to effect revolutions. 

More obnoxious measures succeeded. Further restrictions were 
placed upon the liberty of the press. To secure a majority in the 
upper house, a large number of peers was created. The chamber 
of deputies was dissolved, in hopes that the court influence would 
be more predominant in the next. The result proved quite the 
reverse, and the royalist ministers were compelled to resign. The 
more liberal statesmen who succeeded them, retained office only for 
a short time; and in 1829 the king appointed a new ministry, at the 
head of which was the Prince de Polignac, a name odious to the 
whole nation from the former career of the family which he repre- 
sented. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies being found too 
republican, was dissolved immediately after its meeting, and a new 
election was ordered, which, however, resulted still more unfavourably 
to the court. 

On the 4th of July, 1830, the city of Algiers, so long a pest to all 



FRANCE. 



543 



civilized communities, was taken by a Frencli force, and the foundation 
of the important province of Algeria was laid. The success of this 
expedition, though very popular, could not allay the public irritation, 
stimulated by further acts of an arbitrary character. Great discon- 
tent had been caused by the mean and spiteful attempt of the Bour- 
bons, on their first restoration, to efface every vestige of the glories 
of ISTapoleon. His statue had been taken from its lofty column in 
the Place Yendome, and melted to form that of the horse of Henry 
IV. His name had been carefully erased from public buildings and 
monuments. This miserable persecution of a name and a memory 
was continued even now, so long after the death of its object, and 
the statues or portraits of the greatest sovereign who had ever ruled 
over France were proscribed by the petty legitimacy which had 
been foisted on the throne. 

Perceiving the unfavourable prospects of the session, Charles, on 
the 26th of July, 1830, issued an ordinance, abolishing the freedom 
of the press, and arbitrarily and against law dissolved the Chambers, 
which had not yet convened; and appointed, equally without 
authority, a new mode of election, better calculated to serve his 
views. The charter was thus entirely subverted, and great agitation 
ensued in Paris. On the 27th, in spite of the ordinance, numbers of 
the deputies met, and protested against it. On the 28th they pro- 
ceeded in a body to the Tuileries, and represented to Marmont, 
commander of the forces, that the people would forcibly oppose the 
government. The king ordered him to suppress the popular move- 
ment by military force. Meanwhile, tri-coloured flags and cockades 
began to be displayed, and the old uniform of the National Guard 
was assumed by many of the citizens. A contest commenced between 
the people and the king's guard, in which the latter were exposed to 
a harassing fire and discharge of missiles from the windows. At 
night barricades were thrown up in the principal streets, and on 
the following day, after a desperate contest between the troops and 
the people, the former, with the exception of the king's guard, 
declared for the popular cause. Several thousands of the citizens 
had been already killed and wounded. The guards quitted Paris; 
the obnoxious ministers resigned their of&ces ; and the king repealed 
his ordinances. It was too late. The people, now thoroughly 
aroused, were determined on a change of government. The deputies 
met, and the National Guard, with La Fayette at its head, was called 
out. His personal influence was such that the city was almost 



544 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

instantly quieted, and tlie " Ee volution of Three Days " was disgraced 
by no excesses whatever. 

On the 30th the duke of Orleans (son of Egalit^, who had prompted 
and who perished in the first Revolution,) was appointed the tem- 
porary head of government. On the 2d of August, the king formally 
abdicated in favour of his grandson, and fled to England. After 
much collision of sentiment, the influence of La Fayette determined 
the Chambers to declare in favour of a limited monarchy, and to place 
the duke of Orleans on the throne. The career of this prince had 
been one of uncommon adventure and vicissitude. He had, while 
very yoimg, distinguished himself in defence of the republic, had 
seen his father perish on the scaffold, and had been compelled to fly 
for his own life. He had taught mathematics in Switzerland, and 
resided as a private citizen in the United States. 

From 1800 until the fall of Napoleon, he had quietly resided in 
England, and since the accession of the Bourbons, had been intrusted 
with military command on account of his relationship, and deprived 
of it on account of his too liberal principles. From a monarch 
trained in such a school of adversity the nation naturally expected 
prudence and regard to popular right. He was accordingly, on the 
9th of August, publicly proclaimed "King of the French," a title 
constructed purposely to exclude the feudal principles of a monarchy, 
and to recognise the political existence of the people. 

The government of the "Citizen King" proved, in many respects, 
firm and sensible. The French footing in Africa was maintained 
and extended, though at a very considerable cost both of life and 
money; and, in the general pacification of Europe, this turbulent 
and half-conquered province was considered as affording an excellent 
school of warfare to the oflicers and soldiers of the French army. 
The foreign relations of France, during his reign, were generally 
managed in a spirit of prudence and conciliation ; and perhaps no 
government of that country ever succeeded in inspiring the other 
Europeon powers with greater confidence and friendliness. 

The king, whose private fortune was immense, was perhaps one of 
the most liberal and judicious patrons of art and science whom 
France has ever known. The taste and pride of the nation were 
gratified by the erection or completion of magnificent structures, and 
by the most lavish expenditure upon such exhibitions of native 
talent as exalted the glory of the French people. The restoration 
of the remains of Napoleon, which his influence with the British 



FKANCE. 545 

government procured, occasioned a pageant, from its grandeur and 
associations perhaps the most interesting of modern times. Brought 
from their island-grave in St. Helena, and followed by the old sol- 
diers of the empire, the mortal relics of the emperor were borne on a 
gorgeous car, amid an innumerable multitude, to their final resting- 
place. The king "in the name of France" solemnly received them 
from his son, the Prince de Joinville, who had been honoured with 
conveying them across the seas ; and amid the most impressive cere- 
monies, the corpse of Napoleon was deposited beneath the great dome 
of the Invalides, hung round with trophies of his victorious career. 

Although possessing the throne only by tenure of a sudden revo- 
lution, Louis Philippe, whether from supposed necessity, from incli- 
nation, or from distrust of his subjects, lapsed farther and farther 
into arbitrary measures. Unquestionably, there has always been 
in France, and especially in Paris, a considerable class of ultra- 
republicans and lawless agitators, whom no government would 
satisfy, and whose only object is the seizure and division of the 
property of others. But in his efforts to suppress this Jacobinical 
spirit, measures were taken which also completely destroyed the 
liberties of the people. Suffrage was restricted to a comparatively 
small portion of the citizens, and the government, by its immense 
system of patronage, and the myriads of offices at its disposal, was 
usually enabled to control both the popular elections and the action 
of the assembly. 

Severe restrictions were placed upon the liberties of the press, and 
prosecutions against offending editors were urged with great and 
unrelenting rigour. These extremities naturally produced deep 
indignation among the more violent spirits of the popular party, 
and the life of the king was so frequently attempted by assassins, 
that without a strong escort he was unable to make his appearance 
in public. An "infernal machine," prepared by Fieschi and other 
conspirators, was almost successful in its purpose. A large number 
of muskets, arranged so as to command the passage of a street, were 
simultaneously fired as the royal procession defiled past. The king 
escaped, but many persons in attendance were killed or wounded. 
Among the former was the celebrated Marshal Mortier. 

Notwithstanding the fierce spirit of insurrection which these 

attempts evinced, the king for eighteen years continued to hold an 

uninterrupted and apparently a perfectly assured and settled sway 

over the excitable and capricious nation which had called him to the 

35 



546 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

throne. With, a standing army of some hundred ttonsand men, 
and a line of fortifications commanding the city of Paris, his power 
was considered as secure as that of any European sovereign. How 
fruitless such precautions may be against the united movement of 
an indignant people, our own times have witnessed with astonishment. 
The wonderful revolution of February, 1848, by which Louis 
Philippe was driven from his throne, and the startling events which 
with such rapidity have since succeeded one another, are matters at 
present rather of news than of history, and must be considered as 
the commencement of a new political cycle, whose destiny, of all the 
European future, it is perhaps most difficult to foretell. After the 
commencement of this singular revolution, at first so eminently 
peaceable and successful, a host of names attained temporary dis- 
tinction ; and after being borne aloft, for a brilliant moment, on the 
wave of popular impulse, were successively whelmed beneath its 
fury. The terrible insurrection of the barricades, at Paris, which 
soon ensued, sufficiently proved a condition of deep popular ignorance 
and distress, stimulated by the incendiary appeals of a few wrong- 
headed and bad-hearted demagogues. It is to be trusted that the 
thousands who perished in that mad and obstinate resistance to a 
government of the popular choice, have not died in vain ; and that 
the capacity of the French nation for self-government may be fully 
evinced in a long, successful, and peacefally-glorious career of the 
Eepublic, purchased by so many years of alternate tyranny, anarchy, 
and war. 



FRANCE. 



547 



THE RULERS OF FRANCE, 



The Romans, B.C. 60toa.d.420 

Pharamond, Chief of the Franks, . . . , . . 420 " 428 

Clodion, 428 " 448 

THE MEROVINGIAN KINGS. 

Meroveus, 448 " 458 

Childeric, 458 « 481 

Clevis, 481 " 511 

Descendants of Clovis, 511 " 628 

Dagobert I., great-grandson of Clovis, 628 " 638 

Clovis II., . . . 638 " 655 

Les Rois Faineans (" the sluggish kings,") nominal sovereigns, . 655 " 737 

Pepin d'Heristal, Mayor of the Palace, 688 " 714 

Charles Martel, son of Pepin, 714 " 741 

Pepin the Short, son of Charles, 741 " 768 

Charlemagne, son of Pepin, 768 " 816 

The Carlovingian Kings, or Successors of Charlemagne, . . 816 " 987 

HOUSE OF CAPET. 

Hugh Capet, 987 " 996 

Robert (the Pious), son of Hugh, 996 '• 1031 

Henry I., son of Robert, 1031 " 1060 

Philip I., son of Henry, . . 1060 " 1108 

Louis VI., son of Philip, . . . . . . :. . 1108 " 1137 

Louis VII., son of Louis VI., 1137 " 1180 

Philip IL (Augustus), son of Louis Vn., . . . . . 1180 " 1223 

Louis VIIL, son of Philip IL, 1223 " 1226 

Louis IX. (St. Louis), son of Louis VIIL, .... 1226 " 1270 

Philip III. (the Bold), son of Louis IX., . . . . . 1270 " 1285 

Philip IV. (the Fair), son of Philip III., . . . . . 1285 " 1314 

Louis X. (the Peevish), son of Philip IV., . . . . . 1314 « 1316 

Philip v., son of Philip IV., 1316 « 1321 

Charles IV. (the Fair), son of Philip IV., 1321 " 1328 

HOUSE OF VALOIS. 

Philip VT., grandson of Philip HI., 1328 " 1350 

John (the Good), son of Philip VL, 1350 " 1364 

Charles V., son of John, 1364 " 1380 

Charles VL (the Well-beloved), son of Charles V 1380 " 1422 

Charles VII., son of Charles VI., 1422 « 1461 



548 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

Louis XL, son of Charles VII., from 1461 to 1483 

Charles VIH., son of Louis XL, 1483 " 1498 

Louis Xn., great-grandson of Charles V., 1498 " 1515 

Francis L, great^great-grandson of Charles V., . . . . 1515 " 1547 

Henry IL, son of Francis L, 1547 " 1559 

Francis 11., son of Henry IL, 1559 " 1560 

Charles IX., son of Henry 11. . 1560 « 1574 

Henry IIL son of Henry IL, 1574 « 1589 

HOUSE OF BOURBON. 

Henry IV. (the Great), eleventh descendant of Louis IX., . . 1589 " 1610 

Louis XHL, son of Henry IV., 1610 " 1643 

Louis XIV., son of Louis XIIL, 1643 " 1715 

Louis XV., great-grandson of Louis XIV., .... 1715 " 1774 

Louis XVI., grandson of Louis XV., 1774 " 1793 

Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI., (died from m-treatment during the Revolution.) 

The Republic, 1793 " 1799 

The Consulate, 1799 " 1804 

The Empire, 1804 " 1814 

Louis XVIIL, brother of Louis XVI., 1814 " 1815 

The Hundred Days of the Empire, 1815 

Louis XVIIL (restored), ■ . . . 1815 " 1824 

Charles X., brother of Louis XVIIL, 1824 " 1830 

Louis Philippe, sixth descendant of Louis XIIL, . . . 1830 " 1848 

The Republic, 1848 " 



E N GL AI D. 



uj^iiirxiiiiU i 



BRITAIN UNDER THE ROMANS. 

Less than two thousand years since, Britain, now one of the most 
powerful and civilized nations on earth, was mostly an uncultivated 
forest, inhabited by a rude and barbarous people, not much superior 
in their manners and mode of life to the Indians and other savages 
of our own day. They seldom tilled the earth, but lived principally 
on the milk and flesh of their cattle ; commerce was unknown, and 
the humanizing arts had not the slightest existence. These people 
were a branch of that great Celtic race which occupied the most of 
Western Europe, and which had been partially subdued and civil- 
ized by the Eomans. In Britain, they were divided into small 
independent tribes, often at warfare with each other. 

The whole nation was principally under control of the priests or 
Druids, who were the repository of all the national knowledge and 
learning, probably little. Their chief doctrine was that of the trans- 
migration of souls, and their religious rites were bloody and revolting. 
The nobility tyrannized without restraint over the common people, 
and each petty prince possessed despotic power. To the Eomans, 
those wonderful conquerors and civilizers of mankind, is due their 
first step in that march of improvement which has resulted so 
remarkably. 

B. C. 55, Julius Oassar, who had just effected the conquest of Gaul, 
resolved to gain fresh renown by the invasion of an island which 
was regarded as lying beyond the limits of the world; and with 
two legions effected a landing on the coast of Kent, defeating the 
undisciplined forces which opposed him. Circumstances compelled 
his return to Gaul, but in the following spring he again landed with 



550 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

j&ve legions and two thousand horse, defeated Cassivelaunus, under 
whom the natives had united, received the submission of several 
states, imposed tribute, and departed. His remaining years were 
occupied in contesting the empire with his rivals, and no further 
conquests were made for a considerable time. Under Augustus and 
Tiberius, some intercourse with Eome was continued, and duties 
were levied by them on the commerce which had commenced 
between Britain and Gaul. 

A. D. 43, nearly an hundred years after the invasion of Caesar, 
Claudius, who was then emperor, issued orders to Plautius, the com- 
mander in Gaul, to recommence hostilities — the pretext being the 
complaint of a British prince, who had been exiled. The Eoman 
general subdued the southern portion of the island, and was soon 
joined by the emperor, who, however, only remained sixteen days. 
The war was still continued by Plautius, by Yespasian (afterwards 
emperor), and by Ostorius. The latter defeated Caractacus, the 
valiant prince of the Silurians or Welsh, who, in their inaccessible 
mountains, had long set the Eoman arms at defiance. The defeated 
chief was carried captive to Eome, where his courage and magnanim- 
ity gained him honourable treatment. The Silurians, however, for 
ten years, maintained a stubborn resistance, but were at last van- 
quished by Suetonius, who defeated them with great slaughter in 
the isle of Mona (Angiesea), which was the principal stronghold of 
the Druids and their followers. 

The Icenians, with other native tribes, provoked by the oppres- 
sion of their new rulers, revolted, and for a time were successful, 
committing great slaughter upon the foreigners and their adherents. 
In London (which even then was a place of some importance) and 
its vicinity, they put to death seventy thousand persons. Their 
queen, Boadicea, was finally defeated with great loss in a pitched 
battle, and the Eomans regained their superiority. After various 
reverses, about the year 80, Vespasian committed the government 
to Agricola, a man distinguished for his virtues and military talents. 

By the justice and mildness of his administration, he conciliated 
the natives, and reduced the hostile tribes to subjection. The Cale- 
donians, a powerful nation in the north of Scotland, in the year 85, 
made a formidable incursion. They were thirty thousand in num- 
ber, each clan being led by its chief, and the whole being under the 
command of an able leader, named Galgacus. The Eoman com- 
mander, engaging with them near the Grampians, gained a complete 



ENGLAND 55]^ 

victory. Ten thousand of the Highlanders were left dead upon 
the plain, and the hostile tribes were compelled to give hostages 
to the Eomans. 

From this time the latter held undisputed possession of all the 
country south of the Scottish friths. By degrees their language 
and customs were diffused among the people ; temples, theatres, and 
other public buildings were erected; and the province felt a com- 
plete dependance upon Kome. The Emperor Hadrian, during his 
visit, constructed a wall across the island, extending from the Sol- 
way to the Tyne, for the purpose of checking the Caledonians, who 
still continued their incursions. 

The Christian religion was introduced into Britain, as well as into 
the other Eoman provinces, and soon became the prevailing faith 
through the civilized part of the island. Under the later emperors, 
the prefects appointed by them, feeling secure in their distant island, 
often declared themselves independent, and assumed the imperial 
purple. As the empire became weaker by internal corruption, and 
by the success of her barbarian neighbours, the Eoman legions were 
gradually withdrawn for the defence of the mother-country. The 
Picts or Caledonians, the Scots from Ireland, and the Saxons from 
the main-land, all harassed the unhappy country with their incur- 
sions. London was taken and plundered by the Picts, who, though 
finally defeated, still kept up their attacks. At length (A. D. 420), 
the last Eoman legion, amid the lamentations of the weak and 
unfortunate Britons, quitted their shore for ever ; and they were left 
unprotected from the ravages of their numerous invaders. 



THE SAXON INTASIONS, AND THE HEPTAECHT. 

9 

In the year 449, after various domestic dissensions had further 
weakened the defenceless kingdom, Yortigern, a native prince, 
being hard pressed by a rival, and continually troubled by the Pict- 
ish invasions, took the fatal step of inviting to his assistance a body 



552 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

of Saxon mercenaries. The tribes inhabiting the forests of Ger- 
many and the western shores of Central Europe, were a race far 
superior to the Britons in courage and enterprise. Already their 
strong and well-rigged vessels had penetrated to distant shores, on 
errands of piracy or commerce. Hengist and Horsa, two renowned 
chiefs, complied with the invitation of Yortigern, and landed in 
Britain with three ships and sixteen hundred men. 

Strengthened by further reinforcements, they successfully repelled 
the Picts and Scots ; but, unsatisfied with the Isle of Thanet, which 
had been bestowed upon them, they made further demands. These 
not being complied with, they turned their arms against their allies, 
and a series of hostilities commenced, which in the end resulted in 
the entire subjugation of the island by its new invaders. Horsa 
was slain; but Hengist, by a series of victories, gained possession 
of the whole of Kent, and thus founded the first kingdom of the 
Saxon Heptarchy. Fresh numbers of the foreigners flocked over. 
A chief named Ella, after a contest of several years, gained posses- 
sion of further territories, and constituted the kingdom of South 
Saxons, now Sussex. Another body, under Cerdic, formed the 
principality of West Saxons or "Wessex. Others, landing on the 
eastern coast, took the name of East Saxons, and their territory 
was called Essex. Norfolk and Suffolk were conquered and settled 
by the Angles, and named from them East Anglia. To this race 
England is indebted for its present name. Deira and Bernicia, 
two British principalities, were subdued by the same people, and 
formed the kingdom of Northumbria, the most powerful in Britain. 
Mercia was for the most part conquered and settled by the same 
people. Thus was formed the Heptarchy, or seven kingdoms of 
the German invaders. 

These changes occupied a period of nearly an hundred and fifty 
years, during which the Britons opposed an insuflicient resistance to 
their fierce and warlike foes, and were gradually reduced to com- 
plete subjection. Only the dwellers in the mountainous district of 
Wales, and the scattered tribes which took refuge thither, remained 
an independent and separate people. In other parts of the island, 
the nationality of the native race was so completely effaced, that their 
original language became entirely disused, and modern English con- 
tains very few traces of the language of the original inhabitants. 

All Britain was now divided between the new and victorious race 
of Anglo-Saxons, the original Britons, who had retreated into 




A DRUID AND DRUIDESS, 

OF THH RAH.I.T INHABITANTS OF BRITAIN 




A DKUIDICAL ALTAR OR MONUMENT 




CROSBY ,', 



A r3FlITISH WARRIOK OF THE SOUTHERN 

IN THE COSTUIJE OF HIS TIMB 




A KNId-HT TEMr-LAR, IK" EULL ARMOUR. 
The celelDrati^d ordev of the Knights of the Temple, Defenderrs of the Holy 
Sepulchre, '.eas founded lu 1118, liy the Pritriarch of Jerusalem; and was sup- 
pressed, under circum.stances of atrocious cruelty, in 1314, hy the Fope, and 
f'hliip the Fair, Kir.g of France 



ENGLAND. 553 

Wales, and the Picts and Scots, in the nortliern part of the island. 
Petty wars continually prevailed, not only between tlie different 
races, but tlie separate tribes of eacb among themselves. 

The most important event of these times was the second introduc- 
tion of Christianity into the island. In the year 596, Gregory, a 
zealous pontiff, eager to effect the conversion of the heathen Sax- 
ons, depatched into Britain a monk named Augustine, with forty 
companions. Ethelbert, king of Kent, where they landed, was 
married to a Christian princess, sister of the king of Paris. Though 
somewhat apprehensive of their power, as magicians, he gave them 
permission to disseminate their doctrines among the people. This 
they did with such effect, that great numbers embraced the new 
religion, and among them the king and his court. Ten thousand 
are said to have been baptized on a single Christmas. 

The first church was erected in Canterbury, on the site of the 
present cathedral ; and shortly afterwards another, dedicated to St. 
Peter, was reared on the banks of the Thames, where Westminster 
Abbey now stands. The faith continued to spread, and ere long 
was firmly established in all the Anglo-Saxon states. 

After nearly two centuries further had elapsed, during which time 
Mereia had been at times the predominant power, and various unin- 
teresting wars had been waged among the different principalities, 
the royal line of Wessex rose into great eminence. Egbert, the 
king, who had been for some years an exile in France, and a guest 
of the great emperor Charlemagne, returned to Britain in the year 
800, and assumed the crown. After devoting some time to the 
improvement of his realm, in 809 he attacked the Britons of Corn- 
wall, and in fourteen years reduced them to submission. He was 
next engaged in war with Mereia, the forces of which he completely 
defeated. Kent submitted to him, and the East Anglians revolted, 
and espoused his cause. The king of Mereia, still struggling for 
the supremacy, was slain in battle; and in 827 Egbert invaded and 
conquered his kingdom. He next seized Northumbria, and finally 
crowned his successes by the conquest of Wales. 



554 TWE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 



THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS. 

The whole island soutli of tlie fritlis was now united under Egbert. 
This prince, the first ruler of the British nation, was a man of great 
talents and ambition, both probably matured by a residence at the 
court of Charlemagne. He gave his kingdom the name of Angle- 
land (England), which, with little alteration, it bears to this day. 
Scarcely had he reduced his new dominions to order, when he was 
called upon to repel the most formidable enemy which the nation 
ever encountered. 

The Northmen or Danes, inhabitants of Denmark and Norway, 
and destined to be the scourge of all adjoining nations, first landed 
in England on the coast of Dorset, with a small force, in the year 
787. Ere long they descended on Northumbria, and plundered the 
monasteries. In 833 they came, with thirty-five vessels, to Char- 
mouth, in Dorset, where Egbert gave them battle, but was unable 
to repulse them from the country. Two years afterwards a large 
body joined the Britons of Devon, and invaded Wessex, but were 
defeated by Egbert. That monarch died in the following year, leav- 
ing Wessex to one of his sons, Ethelwulf, and Sussex, Kent, and 
Essex to Athelstane, the other. 

The Danes continued to make yearly incursions upon the southern 
and eastern coasts ; but were, in general, bravely resisted. Encour- 
aged, however, by spoil, in the year 851 they sailed up the Thames, 
plundered London and Canterbury, and advanced into Stirrey. 
Here, however, they were encountered by Ethelwulf, and defeated 
with great slaughter. At the death of that prince, in 858, his sons 
Ethelbald and Ethelbert succeeded. The latter, surviving, found 
himself in possession of the whole kingdom in 860. 

The Danes continued their ravages. They burned the city of 
"Winchester, and after receiving a large sum from the people of Kent 
as the price of peace, devastated the country. 

Ethelbert dying in 866, his brother Ethered ascended the throne; 
and in the year of his accession, a large army of Danes, landing 
in East Anglia, procured horses, and marched into Northumbria, 



ENGLAND, 555 

defeating the natives, and seizing on York and Nottingham. In 870 
they spread into Lincolnshire, burning and plundering wherever 
they came. The king vainly endeavoured to oppose them, and in 
871 was twice defeated in Wessex, and soon after died, leaving the 
crown to his brother Alfred, a youth of high promise, and already 
distinguished in the war. 

Coming to the throne at the age of twenty-two, he continued the 
conflict, and fought nine battles during the first year of his reign. 
A treaty was made, which, however, the Danes disregarded, and 
again overran the country in 873. Further contests ensued, and 
further treaties were made, all of which were faithlessly broken by 
the Danes, when opportunity served. In 878 they gained such 
advantages, that almost the whole nation submitted to them, and 
the king was forced to wander about the country in the disguise of 
a peasant. 

By degrees he collected a small force of faithful adherents, with 
whom he lived in the midst of a marsh in Somerset. The men of 
Devon having successfully resisted an attack of the foreigners, 
Alfred resolved to make another attempt to expel the invaders. 
He entered their camp disguised as a minstrel, and having learned 
all that he wished, summoned his subjects to renew the war. March- 
ing to Ethandune, he defeated the enemy in a fierce engagement, 
besieged them in their camp, and dictated terms of peace. Guth- 
rum, their leader, was baptized, and acknowledged himself a vassal 
of the English king. He was permitted to retain a portion of ter- 
ritory, and ever after remained faithful to his new sovereign. His 
people also laid aside their rude and predatory habits, devoting 
themselves to agriculture. 

During fifteen years, in which the nation was at peace, Alfred 
employed himself in fortifying the cities of his realm, organizing a 
militia, and improving his navy. In the year 893 a fresh body of 
invaders, with two hundred and fifty vessels, arriving in Kent, for- 
tified a camp. Others sailed up the Thames. The Danes, who had 
settled in Northumbria and East Anglia, revolting, invaded Devon. 
The king gained several victories, and after the war had been pro- 
tracted for four years, the enemy sought the shore, and sailed for 
France. Their piratical excursions on the coast were also repressed 
by the superior naval force of the king, who, in terrorem, hanged the 
crews of two of their vessels, driven ashore on the coast of Sussex. 

This great and admirable monarch died in 901, in the thirtieth 



556 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

year of his reign, at the age of fifty- three. His name has since been 
proverbial as the model of a good sovereign. During his long and 
troubled reign, he devoted much time and attention to the encour- 
agement of literature and general education; he promoted com- 
merce, and enforced the impartial administration of justice. His 
memory has always been cherished with the greatest fondness by 
the English nation. 

His son Edward I. (surnamed the Elder), was chosen to succeed 
him, by the Witan or parliament. His reign was at first disturbed 
by the pretensions of Ethelwald, a son of Ethelbald, who, with the 
assistance of the Danes of Northumbria, maintained his claim to 
the throne for several years. He was finally slain in battle, and the 
Danes, continuing their hostilities, were defeated with immense 
slaughter. The supremacy of Edward gradually extended over the 
whole islands, even the princes of Wales and Scotland acknowledg- 
ing allegiance to him. He died in 925, after a successful reign of 
twenty-four years. 

Athelstane, his eldest son, by his father's will and the election of 
the Witan, succeeded. Shortly after his accession, the Britons of 
Cambria and Damnonia attempted to recover their independence, 
but were defeated and subdued. A formidable alliance between the 
northern Danes and Scots was no more successful. The Danish 
chiefs were compelled to fly beyond seas, and the Scottish king to 
renew his allegiance, and give his son as a hostage. Anlaf, one of 
the former, becoming master of Dublin, renewed the war, assisted 
by the Scots and several of the British tribes. 

Anlaf, in the guise of a minstrel, examined the king's camp, and 
a night attack was commenced by the confederates. A battle ensued, 
lasting all the following day, which resulted in their entire defeat, 
with the loss of many of their chiefs and vast numbers of their fol- 
lowers. After this decisive victory, the reign of Athelstane was 
undisturbed. He was in friendly alliance with the first princes on 
the continent, many of whom were connected with him by marriage 
or other private ties. He died in 941, and was succeeded by his 
brother Edmund, a youth of eighteen. After some years of contest 
with Anlaf, with whom he was compelled to share his sovereignty, 
the death of the latter enabled him to regain and extend his 
authority. He met his death in a manner curiously characteristic 
of the rudeness of the times. Seeing at his table one Leof, an out- 
law, the king sprang up, and attempted to eject him from the room. 



ENGLAND. 557 

In tlie struggle, he received a mortal wound from the knife of the 
intruder, and died in 946, after a reign of five years. 

His brother Edred succeeded to the throne, and being acknowl- 
edged king, subdued a rebellion in ISTorthumbria, and converted it 
into an earldom for one of his adherents. 

On his death, in 955, Edwy, son of Edmund, was chosen king. 
His reign was brief and unhappy. Dunstan, the Abbot of Glasten- 
bury, a man of great talents, and enthusiastic in the cause of the 
church, had for some time possessed almost absolute authority with 
the court and nation. Perceiving his influence on the wane after 
the accession of Edwy, a youth of seventeen, and fond of pleasure, 
he sought the means of regaining his ascendancy, and in conjunc- 
tion with Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, compelled the king to 
separate from his wife Elgiva. Her face was scarred with a hot 
iron, and shortly afterwards she was brutally murdered by the sol- 
diers of Odo. Her unfortunate husband did not long survive her; 
and at his death, in 959, his brother Edgar, at the age of thirteen, 
was chosen king. Dunstan became his chief adviser, and was eleva- 
ted to the highest offices in the English church. 

Edgar, surnamed the peaceful, an unprincipled and sensual mon- 
arch, entered into strict league with the clergy, and reigned till 975, 
when he died, and was succeeded by his son Edward II. (the Mar- 
tyr). After a brief reign, this prince was assassinated in 978, by 
command of Elfrida, his step-mother, who thus procured the eleva- 
tion of her own son, Ethelred, to the throne. 

Early in his reign, the Danes renewed their ravages. The whole 
southern coast was devastated, and London itself was taken and 
plundered. The Witan, in 991, had recourse to the miserable 
expedient of buying them off, for which purpose a tax, called Dane- 
geld (Dane-money), was levied throughout the kingdom. 

Ten thousand pounds of silver, which they received, only served 
to incite them to further incursions ; and, in the following year, they 
renewed the war. In 993, Sweyn, king of Denmark, and Olave, 
king of Norway, entered the Humber with a large fleet, ravaged the 
adjoining countries, and laid siege to London itself. Failing to take 
it, they laid waste the south, and only desisted on payment of a new 
bribe of sixteen thousand pounds. Year after year the incursions 
of the Northmen were renewed, and were but feebly opposed by 
the English. In the year 1002, twenty-four thousand pounds were 
paid them as the price of quiet. 



558 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Soon afterwards the king and Ms assembly determined on a bold 
and treacherous project. On a given day, the Danes, scattered 
throughout the island, were every where attacked and slain without 
mercy by the native inhabitants. Among them was Gunhilda, the 
sister of Sweyn. In revenge, the Danish monarch recommenced 
hostilities, and for four years laid waste the southern and eastern 
parts of the kingdom. In 1006, a respite from plunder was pur- 
chased, as before, by payment of thirty thousand pounds. 

During two years of peace, which succeeded, great preparations 
for defence were made, and a large fleet was assembled at Sandwich ; 
but a quarrel among the leaders rendered these exertions of no 
effect. Soon afterwards a formidable Danish force, commanded by 
Thurldll, landed at Sandwich; ravaged the country far and near; 
and was only induced to depart, at the end of two years, by pay- 
ment of forty-eight thousand pounds. Their leader was also made 
Earl of East-Anglia, and, with a great number of his men, taken 
into the king's pay. 

All was unavailing. The next year, 1013, Sweyn appeared with 
a large armament, and sailed up the Humber. Joined by the Danes 
already in England, he overran the country. The greater part soon 
submitted, and Ethelred, after taking refuge in the isle of Wight, 
was compelled to seek an asylum, with his family, at the court of 
Normandy. 



CHAPTER I?. 

THE DANISH KINGS AND THE LAST OE THE SAXONS. 

The Danish monarch, having become master of all England, died 
in the following year, 1014, and the Danes chose his son Canute to 
fill the throne. The English resolved to recall Ethelred, who, with 
his son, Edmund Ironside, recommenced the war. After various 
indecisive movements, and the treacherous assassination of some of 
the Danish chiefs, Ethelred died in 1016 at London. 

Edmund was chosen as his successor by the Witan at London ; 



ENGLAND. 559 

but that of "Wessex decided in favour of Canute. Hostilities were 
immediately commenced. The Dane took London, and after several 
obstinate conflicts, the kingdom, by mutual agreement, was divided 
between them, Edmund retaining a titular superiority. He died 
the same year, and the Witan, assembling at London, declared 
Canute king of all England. 

To strengthen his power, the new sovereign married Emma, the 
widow of Ethelred, and gave large possessions to his most dis- 
tinguished supporters. He was now the most powerful monarch of 
his age, being king of Denmark, Norway, and England, and having 
the homage of Sweden and Scotland. His time was principally 
spent in England, but he often visited his northern dominions, and 
successfally put down all attempts at revolt. As he grew old, his 
reign became mild and equitable, and he gained the affections of his 
new subjects. 

It is related that, to rebuke the flattery of his courtiers, he ordered 
his chair to be set upon the strand at Southampton, and commanded 
the advancing tide to respect the majesty of his person. As the waves 
reached and foamed around him, he reproved the senseless adula- 
tion of his flatterers, and from that time laid aside the crown, 
deposited it in the cathedral, and never resumed it. He died at 
Shaftesbury, 1G35, after a reign of eighteen years. 

Of his three sons, Sweyn inherited by will the kingdom of Nor- 
way, Harold that of England, and Hardacnute Denmark. Harold, 
securing the royal treasure, and supported by the Danish faction, 
was enabled to exclude Hardacnute, the son of Emma, on whom, 
by the original settlement of Canute, the crown devolved. He died 
in 1040, and Hardacnute was unanimously invited to ascend the 
throne. He reigned but two years, and died from excess at a drink- 
ing match in 1042. 

Edward (the Confessor), a son of Ethelred, was at this time in 
England, and Grodwin, the powerful earl of Wessex, and son-in-law 
of Canute, offered to secure him the crown on condition of his 
espousing Editha, the earl's daughter. A great council was held at 
London, and by the influence of Godwin, the prince was elected to 
the throne, and crowned at "Winchester in 1043. The odious tax 
of Dane-geld was abolished by him, and the valuable possessions 
granted to Danish favourites were resumed. The influence of God- 
win was paramount : his authority, and that of his sons, Sweyn and 
Harold, extended over all the south of Englaad and the greater part 



560 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

of the kingdom. Edward, thougli compelled to acquiesce, disliked 
the family, and selected all his favourites from Normandy, the coun- 
try of his education. Numbers of these foreigners flocked over, 
and were advanced to high offices. Their language, the Norman 
French, was also adopted at court, and the people began to be jeal- 
ous of the ascendancy which this more polished race was acquiring. 

Open hostilities commenced with an affray in Dover, caused by 
the insolence of the foreigners ; and Godwin, with his sons, espoused 
the cause of the English. They were, however, obliged to flee 
into exile, and sentence of outlawry was passed against them. 
Their possessions were allotted to others, and the king's authority 
was completely established. At this time his cousin William, duke 
of Normandy, paid a visit to the English court, and perhaps first 
entertained his ambitious designs upon the kingdom. 

In 1052, the exiled family of Godwin made a vigorous movement 
to recover their power. Harold raised forces in Ireland, and his 
father, with a large fleet from Flanders, appeared on the south 
coast. The people declared in their favour, and, uniting their forces, 
they marched to London. The king was compelled to yield. The 
Witan-gemot was assembled ; all their honours and possessions were 
restored, and the foreigners were mostly compelled to quit the king- 
dom. The death of Godwin, which occurred not long after, increased 
the power and influence of his successor Harold. 

At this time, the interference of England was solicited by Mal- 
colm, the rightful heir to the Scottish throne. His father, Duncan, 
had been treacherously murdered by Macbeth, one of his officers, 
who usurped the crown. The prince claimed the protection of 
Edward, as his liege lord, and an army was despatched to his assist- 
ance, under Earl Siward, who defeated and slew the usurper, and 
in 1054 placed Malcolm on the throne. 

The king, who had intended to appoint his nephew Edward to 
the succession, was disappointed by his sudden death ; and it is said 
that he made a will, appointing William of Normandy heir to the 
kingdom. Harold having fallen into the hands of a lawless baron 
on the coast of Ponthieu, was, by order of William, released, and 
sent to the court of Normandy. On this occasion, the latter informed 
him of his aspirations to the crown, and Harold, seeing himself in 
the duke's power, took an oath to support his pretensions. 

Edward having rebuilt and consecrated Westminster Abbey, died, 
and was buried there in 1065, having reigned twenty-three years. 



ENGLAND. 



561 



His character was weak and feeble, better suited for a cloister than 
a throne. The comparative peacefulness and tranquillity of his 
reign, however, and the equitable laws which then prevailed, caused 
the people often to recall his memory with regret, in later and more 
tyrannical times. 

On the day of his funeral, Harold was crowned without opposi- 
tion, having, it is said, obtained from the king, on his death-bed, a 
nomination as successor. The news reached William while hunting 
at Eouen, and the bow dropped from his hand. By advice of his 
barons he summoned Harold to resign the crown. This being 
promptly refused, the duke convened a general parliament of his 
nobles and dependants at Lillebonne. Though not obliged by their 
tenures to accompany him beyond seas, they agreed to attempt the 
conquest of England, and many warlike leaders from the adjoining 
countries flocked to his standard. The Pope also espoused his cause, 
and sent him a consecrated banner and a hair of St. Peter. 

Meanwhile, Harold was engaged in conflict with his ferocious and 
gigantic namesake, Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, who had 
landed in England, and defeated the forces sent to oppose him. 
The English monarch, before joining battle, offered his brother 
Tosti, who was with the enemy, an earldom and other honours. It 
being demanded what he would give to the king of Norway, Har- 
old replied, "Seven feet of English earth, or, as he is a giant, per- 
haps a little more." Tosti and Hardrada were slain, and their army 
was completely defeated. 

Immediately afterwards, came tidings of the invasion of William, 
who landed with a force of sixty thousand men at Pevensey, on the 
28th of September, 1066. The king hastened to London, in six 
days assembled a large force, and marched against the invaders. On 
the 15th of October the two armies engaged at a place called Senlac 
(now Battle), about eight miles inland of Hastings. The English 
stood on the defensive, the king fighting on foot beneath the royal 
banner, and all his nobles following his example. 

The Normans advanced to the attack, preceded by the papal flag, 
and led by William, who bore around his neck a number of the 
ghastly relics upon which Harold lately had sworn to support his 
claim. A Norman knight, named Taillefer, rode in front of the 
army, tossing his sword in the air, and singing the song of the hero 
Roland. He slew two of the English, but fell by the hand of 
a third. The Normans discharged their arrows, and then closed in 
86 



562 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

action. Their cavalry was twice driven back, and they were unable 
to break the compact masses of the English. By enticing a portion 
of the defenders into a pursuit, William was enabled to cut them 
oif. The archery still continued to pour a flight of arrows upon 
their crowded ranks ; and one of these entering the eye of Harold, 
decided the day. The king was slain, and his army utterly routed. 
The victors in this obstinate contest lost a fourth of their number ; 
the loss of the English, as well as their original number, is unknown. 

At the time of this important event, the Anglo-Saxons, politically 
speaking, were possessed of a tolerable share of freedom and liberal 
institutions, though strongly tinctured with the barbarism of the 
age. They were divided into several distinct classes. First, the 
nobility, called Eorls (earls), composed of the lords and gentry; 
second, the Ceorles (carles), who owned or cultivated the ground, 
and held it by payment of certain dues, or the performance of cer- 
tain services to the lords ; and thirdly, the Theowes, or slaves, who 
were the absolute property of their masters. Slavery and the slave- 
trade appear to have prevailed in England from an early period. 

The country was divided into Townships, Hundreds, and Shires, 
much as it is at present; and regular jurisdiction belonged to each 
of these divisions. The clergy constituted a portion of all the 
higher courts. The Witana-gemot was the great council or parlia- 
ment of the kingdom, and sat thrice a year. The king in person 
presided, and next to him sat the bishops, abbots, and other clergy ; 
beneath these the Welch and Scottish princes, and lower still the 
ealdorTuen, or chief men of the shires, and the landholders. In this 
grand council all laws were made, taxes imposed, and state offend- 
ers tried. It also had power to choose a successor to the crown 
from any of the royal line. 

In the several lower courts, were tried various crimes and misde- 
meanours. Treason, robbery, murder, and some other offences were 
punished with death. Homicide might be paid for at a given rate, 
according to the rank of the individual slain — that of a ceorl being 
two hundred shillings, and of a lord twelve hundred. The oath of 
the latter was also held equal to six of the former. The trial by 
ordeal of fire or water was common ; the defendant's innocence being 
presumed if he escaped unhurt, and vice versa. Something slightly 
resembling the trial by jury also prevailed. 

The feudal principle existed to a certain extent ; and the greater 
part of the royal revenues was derived from the dues and tributes 



ENGLAND. 553 

of those holding lands and titles under the king. All real estate 
was also held liable for the repair of roads and bridges, the main- 
tenance of fortresses, and the furnishing men for the defence of the 
kingdom. 

The clergy enjoyed high consideration; having a place ex officio 
in the various courts and councils. A bishop ranked with an earl ; 
and the oath of a priest was held equal to that of an hundred and 
twenty ceorles. In her doctrines and ceremonies, the Anglo-Saxon 
church closely followed that of Eome. 



GHAPTEE 7. 

WILLIAM I., WILLIAM II., AND HENRY I. 

After ravaging the coast and burning Dover, the Duke of 
Normandy directed his march toward London. Kesistance seemed 
hopeless ; disunion prevailed in the various parties of the English ; 
and the chief persons among the clergy and laity entered his camp, 
and made their submission. He was crowned on the 25th of 
December, at Westminster Abbey, in the midst of a contest between 
his followers and the English, which left the church almost empty. 

William, hereafter called the Conqueror, displayed at first a strong 
desire to conciliate his new subjects; and commenced his reign with 
many liberal and judicious measures. He confiscated, however, the 
estates of those who had fought against him at Hastings, and his 
followers, who received them, erected castles, and secured them with 
Norman garrisons. Having settled affairs for a time, he returned to 
Normandy, astonishing his subjects by the splendour of his spoils, 
and richly endowing his favourite monasteries. The Pope, also, was 
liberally remembered. 

Meanwhile, his officers and followers in England, by their oppres- 
sion, were driving the people to a desperate resistance. In some 
parts the Normans were expelled fi.^om their possessions, and a 
general revolt was meditated. William returned in haste, concili- 
ated the principal persons of the realm, and reduced the revolted 



564: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

provinces hj arms. The conquered country was divided among 
his followers. 

A second and formidable scheme of insurrection was also sup- 
pressed; and the Conqueror burned, plundered, and massacred 
throughout many of the fairest portions of England. An attempt 
headed by the sons of Harold was in like manner defeated. 

A more troublesome enemy was found in Sweyn, king of Denmark, 
who sent his brother and two sons, with two hundred and forty ves- 
sels, to the assistance of the English. William, however, by bribery 
finally induced them to depart, and then took the most savage 
revenge upon the revolted provinces, leaving them a perfect desert. 
Famine ensued, and more than a hundred thousand persons perished. 
A few desperate men still continued their resistance for a while 
longer, but were finally defeated, and mostly slain. 

Having reduced the kingdom to entire subjection, William 
entered Scotland, and received the homage of King Malcolm; 
thence passing over to the continent, he plundered and subdued the 
province of Maine. While thus absent, in 1075, a new insurrec- 
tion, headed by Norman nobles, broke out in England. It was, how- 
ever, suppressed without much difficulty, and the king took occasion 
to behead the last earl of English blood who still retained the title. 

His own family now began to give the monarch great uneasiness. 
Eobert, his eldest son, discontented because Normandy was not 
granted him, set the king's authority at defiance, and intrenched 
himself in a castle of that province. The king besieged him, and 
one day, in a sally, was unhorsed and wounded by his own son, 
who, however, soon went into voluntary exile. 

The bishop of Durham, a foreigner, had oppressed the people 
intolerably ; and, refusing redress, was set upon by his flock, and 
slain, with many of his people. The insurrection extended; but 
Odo, bishop of Bayeux, the king's brother, marched with an army 
into the disaffected region, pillaging and slaughtering the malcon- 
tents. His own fall, however, was at hand. While endeavouring 
to secure the papacy, he was seized and imprisoned by William, who 
dreaded his ambitious projects. 

In 1085, the kings of Norway and Denmark prepared a great fleet 
and army to effect the liberation of England from the foreign yoke. 
The Conqueror also enlisted a vast force, principally foreign merce- 
naries; but from various causes (among them, liberal bribery by 
William) the northern armament never sailed for England. 



ENGLAND. 555 

In 1087 tlie king quitted England, amid the curses of liis people. 
"While at Eouen, lie was greatly enraged at a joke made by the king 
of France upon his corpulency, and immediately commenced hostili- 
ties against that monarch, burning and destroying the country before 
him. While galloping through the embers of the town of Mantes, 
which he had burned, his horse started, and injured him danger- 
ously. Being conveyed to a neighbouring monastery, he languished 
six weeks, and then died ; his last acts showing deep remorse for 
the cruelty and violence which he had exercised. He left, by will, 
Normandy to his son Eobert, England to William, and five thousand 
pounds to his third son, Henry. At his death, all persons present 
hurried off to secure their own interests ; the house was plundered ; 
and the corpse lay for some time almost naked on the floor. When it 
was about to be interred in the church at Caen, which he had built, 
the owner of the land, whom he had despoiled of it, forbade the 
burial until he received the price of the grave. 

This monarch, who effected such an entire change in the affairs 
of England, was a man of consummate ability, but cruel, avaricious, 
and selfish in the extreme. His personal strength and courage were 
great ; and he especially delighted in hunting, for which amusement 
(in addition to sixty-eight royal parks) he laid waste a tract of 
thirty square miles in Hampshire, called the New Forest, burning 
all habitations, and expelling the people. With good policy, he 
conciliated the clergy, and secured their support by frequent and 
liberal grants and constant patronage. 

In the latter part of his reign, the celebrated survey was made, 
and recorded in the "Domesday Book," of all the landed property 
and its holders in the realm. The internal regulations for the pre- 
servation of peace and property (except where the king himself was 
concerned) were severe, and tolerably efficient. 

William 11. (Rufus, the Red), on arriving at England, hastened 
to secure the treasures and the strongholds. He was crowned at 
Westminster on the 26th of September. Odo, indeed, and others 
of the Anglo-Norman nobles, declared in favour of Robert, as the 
rightful heir ; but William, to conciliate the English in his favour, 
made many fair promises of reform, and thus raising an army, was 
enabled to put down the discontented faction. No amelioration of 
the people's condition, however, was granted. 

In 1091 he attempted the conquest of Normandy, then held by 
Robert; but having come to an agreement, the two brothers turned 



566 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY, 

their arms against Henry, whom they compelled to surrender his 
fortress, and betake himself into exile. 

Meanwhile, Malcolm had made an incursion into England; but 
on the return of William was compelled to renew his homage, and 
in 1093, making a new irruption, was slain in a skirmish. A fresh 
attempt on Normandy, an invasion of the Welsh, and a revolt of 
some of his own barons, furnished further employment to the king 
for his arms and policy. 

At this time, Peter the Hermit had infected all Europe with the 
fanatical and enthusiastic design of recovering the Holy Sepulchre 
at Jerusalem from the Turks. Eobert, a brave soldier, and eager to 
distinguish himself in this new contest, assumed the cross ; and, to 
raise money for the expedition, agreed to yield his duchy to Wil- 
liam, for five years, for the sum of ten thousand marks. William 
almost stripped the kingdom to raise it, and in 1096 took posses- 
sion of the province. 

In the latter part of his reign, the king was engaged in disputes 
with the clergy, similar to those which proved so troublesome to 
his successors. In the year 1099, on the 2d of August, he went 
hunting in the New Forest, and in the evening was found lying 
dead, with an arrow through his breast. This deed has been attrib- 
uted to Walter Tyrrel, a French knight, but without sufficient 
proof. The perpetrator and the motive are alike unknown. The 
king died in the twelfth year of his reign, leaving a character for 
ability and unscrupulousness much resembling that of his father. 

His brother, Henry I., having hastened to secure the treasure, was 
crowned on the 5th, three days afterwards. He made conciliatory 
promises to the clergy, barons, and people ; and, to secure the English 
interest, married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and of 
Margaret, a kinswoman of King Edward's. 

Eobert, returning from the Holy Land, took possession of his 
duchy of Normandy, and with a large force landed at Portsmouth, 
to contest the possession of England. By mediation of some of the 
principal men, however, he resigned his claim for a pension of three 
thousand marks which, however, in 1103, he was obliged to relin- 
quish, having imprudently trusted his person into the hands of his 
brother. 

Henry, pursuing his ambitious and unnatural career, landed in 
Normandy, in 1105, with a great force, and, after an indecisive 
campaign, totally defeated Eobert and his army with great slaugh- 



ENGLAND. 



567 



ter. All Kormandy became his, and his unfortunate brother was 
kept close prisoner till his death — a period of thirty years. 

In 1120 the king sustained a severe shock in the loss of his eldest 
son "William, who was drowned in crossing the straits. After hear- 
ing the news, he is said never to have smiled again. 

For some time he had been disturbed by the hostile pretensions 
of William, son of Eobert, assisted by the king of France and other 
princes; but his death in a battle at last removed this cause of 
uneasiness. Having no male heir, the succession was settled upon 
his daughter Matilda, the widow of the Emperor Henry V., and now 
married to Geoffrey of Anjou. The latter part of his reign was 
spent in Normandy, where he died on the 1st of December, 1135, 
in the sixty-seventh year of his age. This prince (called Beauclerc, 
from his love of letters) possessed the abilities and faults of his two 
predecessors. Justice, however, was rigidly executed. The forest 
laws were even more severe than under the Williams — the killing 
of a stag being made equal to that of a man. 



CHAPTER ?I. 

STEPHEN, AND HENRY II. 

Stephen, a grandson of the Conqueror by his daughter Adela 
and the count of Blois, resolved, on the death of Henry, to make a 
bold attempt upon the crown. Passing into England, where he was 
very popular, he seized the treasure (as usual), and, by procuring a 
person to swear that he had been named heir to the throne by the 
king on his death-bed, gained over the primate to crown him at 
Westminster on the 22d of December. 

The barons, taking advantage of the weakness of the new gov- 
ernment, began to act the part of petty tyrants throughout the 
country. Fortified castles arose on every side, and the unhappy 
peasants and citizens were most cruelly plundered and oppressed. 
Few atrocities can exceed the tortures, murders, and outrages of 
every kind, which for many years rendered England one of the 
most miserable countries on earth. 



568 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

The king found his throne by no means an easy one. Eevolts 
and Scottish incursions followed each other in rapid succession. 
Hardly had he surmounted these difficulties, when in 1141 Matilda, 
with her natural brother, Kobert, landed in Sussex, and was joined 
by many barons and knights. After various battles and skirmishes, 
the king was defeated and made prisoner near Lincoln, and Matilda 
was proclaimed queen of England. 

Such was her haughty and ungracious temper, that the Londoners 
and others speedily revolted ; Eobert was seized ; and Stephen, by 
exchange for him, regained his liberty. After the war had been 
protracted for some years longer, the death of Eobert so discouraged 
the empress, that in 1147 she withdrew into Normandy. Hostili- 
ties ceased for two years, but in 1150 her son Henry, passing through 
the kingdom to Scotland, reanimated the hopes of her faction. 
Having come into possession of Normandy, he passed over into 
England, in 1152, to support his adherents. After some hostile 
manoeuvres, it was agreed that Stephen should hold the crown dur- 
ing his life, and that Henry should succeed him. The king died in 
the following year, on the 25th of October, after an unquiet reign of 
nineteen years. Though a usurper, he possessed many admirable 
qualities, and would probably, under more fortunate circumstances, 
have made a good king. 

It may be remarked that the Norman conquest had made but 
little difference in the laws of England, or in the constitution of 
courts. The principal changes were the transfer of nearly all the 
landed estate to the new comers; the enlargement of the feudal 
system ; the change in the church government ; and the separation of 
the spiritual from the civil jurisdiction. 

The feudal system, the origin of which has been variously deduced 
from the Eoman and Celtic customs, was of a complicated and 
extended nature; but, in general, the effect was to render all land- 
holders dependent upon the higher classes, and make them liable to 
service in war, and various duties in time of peace. The great 
baron holding lands of the king, received the feudal homage of his 
knights, and they, in their turn, of the yeomen and others who 
held under them. 

The church of Eome had gradually been acquiring an ascendancy 
over all others, and in her various contests with the continental 
powers, had usually kept the advantage. In England, as well as 
elsewhere, she had gained a paramount influence, and interfered 





Scotch Costume, 

OF iHE SEVENU'EF.NTU CENTURY 



li'iaii Costume, 

IN THE REIRN OF JAMES 1 





JiigQiand Ba.gpipei 



bL:on;ii Costuuje, 
OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 





L'os"cunie of Ancient Britons, 

TIME OF WILLIAM THE CONQtTERO'R. 



ingiisJi Costume, 

OF THE FOHRTEEISTH CENTU'-iY 





iijngiisn Costume, 

IN THE TIME OF HKNRT Till 



Irisii Costume, 

OF THE TWELFTH CENTtlRY 



ENGLAND. 569 

actively witli the royal authority. This power was greatly aug- 
mented by the privilege accorded to the clergy by William I., of 
being invariably tried before their brethren ; an arrangement which 
rendered them almost irresponsible for crime. 

The courts remained almost unchanged. The highest of these, 
called the King's Court, attended his person, and was composed of 
the chancellor, treasurer, justiciary, and other high officers. Ordeals 
still remained in use, and tlie equally absurd wager of battel, or a 
trial by arms, was introduced. 

The royal revenues were derived from every variety of sources. 
Tolls, permission to trade, fines, forfeitures, right of trial, plunder of 
Jews, &c., &c., were a few of the regular sources of the royal income. 

Henry II, (Plantagenet), at the age of twenty-one, ascended the 
throne without opposition. Besides England, he had inherited from 
his parents and gained by marriage nearly a third of France. He 
immediately commenced a reformation of the existing abuses; 
expelled the mercenaries from the kingdom; purified the coin; 
resumed the possession of the royal castles; and caused the demo- 
lition of those which had been erected by the nobles. In 1156 he 
compelled his brother Geoffrey to resign his pretensions to Anjou 
and Maine, which he had invaded. He afterwards gained further 
accessions to his territory in France, got possession of Brittany, 
and attempted to hold Toulouse. 

The king next turned his attention to repressing the excesses of 
the clergy, among whom murders and other crimes, being unpun- 
ished, had become horribly frequent. To effect this, it was neces- 
sary to appoint some one to the primacy on whose support he could 
depend. Thomas a Becket, the offspring (it is said) of a romantic 
union between a Londoner and the daughter of a Saracen emir, was 
one of the most able and ambitious men of his time. Though edu- 
cated for the church, he had filled many important civil offices. 
Appointed high-chancellor, he greatly distinguished himself by his 
policy, his valour and generalship, and by the magnificence of his 
household. 

Henry supposed that he could confidently rely on his support, 
and in 1162 appointed him archbishop of Canterbury, the head of 
the English church. But no sooner was he installed in his new 
office, than his conduct entirely changed. He relinquished all his 
splendour; lived as an ascetic; and became the most strenuous sup- 
porter of the claims of the church. The king found himself opposed 



570 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKT. 

and baffled at every turn by the able and enthusiastic prelate. At 
a great council, however, held at Clarendon, in 1164, many amend- 
ments were made in the existing system, and provision was made for 
the trial of ecclesiastics in the civil courts. Conflicts between the 
crown and mitre still continued, and Becket, finding the king too 
powerful for him, left the kingdom in disguise, and passed over into 
Flanders. 

Protected by the Pope and Loiiis of France, he continued his 
haughty tone, and excommunicated all who had been concerned in 
the council of Clarendon. In 1170, by the mediation of Louis, an 
apparent reconciliation took place; and Becket returned to resume 
his former position. His obstinate and factious disposition, however, 
produced fresh troubles. The king, highly excited at his attacks, 
one day exclaimed: "Of the cowards who eat my bread, is there 
not one who will free me from this turbulent priest?" Four of his 
barons, hearing these words, secretly left the court, and hastened to 
Canterbury, where the primate was performing religious ceremonies 
and denouncing his enemies. They entered his room, attended by 
twelve knights, and required him to revoke the excommunication 
which he had lately pronounced on the king's partisans. This he 
obstinately refused to do; and soon after, following him into the 
church, the assassins despatched him wdth repeated blows before the 
altar. He died in his fifty-third year, a martj^r to the cause of fanati- 
cism, pride, and usurpation. He was canonized by the church, and 
his shrine at Canterbury was, for many centuries afterwards, the 
favourite resort of pilgrims from all parts of the island. 

Meanwhile, some of Henry's adventurous subjects were laying the 
foundation of a new sovereignty in Ireland. The Irish, a Christian- 
ized but barbarous people, were, in the twelfth century, not much 
advanced beyond the Britons of the time of Caesar. The North- 
men, superior to these rude tribes, had founded some towns on the 
coast, and commenced a foreign intercourse. In the beginning of 
Henry's reign, the Pope, an Englishman, had authorized him, by a 
bull, to invade and take possession of the island. It was at this time 
divided into five kingdoms — Desmond, Thomond, Connaught, Ulster, 
and Leinster. Dermot MacMorrough, king of Leinster, having 
carried off the wife of a chieftain, was compelled by the others to 
fly from the island. He took refiige with Henry at Guienne, in 1167, 
and offered to hold his kingdom in vassalage, if the king would 
restore him. The English sovereign authorized him to enlist his 




THE HUKDKK (;F THOl/IAS A EECSET, 

A«fH Jil.-ji:10i' OF OA-NTrtiBD :tY 

"Thk four assassins proceeded iu great haste to tiae archiejiiscopai pala.cs 
They found tue primate, who trusted entirely to the sacrcdness of his char- 
acter, very slenderly attended; and though they threw^ out many menaces and 
reproaches against him, he was so incapable of fear, that, "without using any 
precautions against their violence, he inamcdiately went to St. Benedict's Church 
to hear vespers. They followed him thither, attacked him Leiore the altar, and 
having cloven his head with naany blows, retired without naeetin.g any opposition 
This was the tragical end of Thomas a Becket, a prela.te of the most lofty, 
intrepid, and inflexible spirit, who was able to cover to the world, and probably 
■CO himself, the enterprises oi' pride and ambition, under the disguise of sanctity, 
and of zeal for the interests of i^eligion. "■ — Hdmf.'s History of Ent-lasd 



ENGLAND. 



571 



subjects in the cause, and in 1169, witli a small force of desperate 
adventurers, he landed in Ireland. Unable to resist the superior 
arms and skill of their Norman invaders, the Irish were defeated; 
and Dermot, unsatisfied with the recovery of his own kingdom, 
invited over the earl of Pembroke, called Strongbow, who married 
his daughter, and made further conquests. Dermot dying. Strong- 
bow succeeded to his throne, and aimed at the conquest of all Ireland. 
He defeated Eoderic, king of Connaught, the lord paramount of the 
island, with great slaughter ; and Henry, fearing the formation of an 
independent kingdom, resolved to pass over into Ireland in person. 

With a fleet of four hundred sail, he landed near Waterford in 1172, 
and received the submission of almost the entire nation. In a great 
council at Dublin, attended by the Irish princes, he settled the state, 
and the following year returned, leaving Hugh de Lucy chief justice, 
and permitting Strongbow to retain a great part of his possessions. 
Though the conquerors were spread throughout the island, the 
two races never coalesced, and for several centuries Ireland presented 
a miserable spectacle of oppression, anarchy, and civil war. 

After these successes, the king received absolution for the death 
of Becket from the Pope, who for some time had been holding an 
excommunication over his head. From this time, family dissensions 
rendered his life an unhappy one. His sons, Henry, Eichard, and 
Geoffrey, on whom England and the French provinces had been 
settled, demanded that they should be put in possession of their 
territories ; and, on his refusal, fled to the court of Louis, and organ- 
ized an extensive confederacy against him. The kings of France 
and Scotland, and the earls of Flanders, Blois, and Boulogne, 
moved by ambition and jealousy, all supported the impudent 
demands of these undutiful princes. 

The king prepared for resistance ; he induced the Pope to excom- 
municate his enemies, and hired twenty thousand mercenaries to 
augment his forces. Normandy was the scene of conflict, and after 
some indecisive actions, the unfortunate king offered to surrender 
to his sons half the revenues of the kingdoms they demanded. 
This negotiation being broken off, he returned to England, where 
Eichard de Lucy, guardian of the kingdom, was defending it bravely 
against revolt and Scottish invasion. The king, proceeding to the 
shrine of Becket, declared his innocence of the saint's death, and 
submitted to a flagellation by the monks. News immediately came 
that the king of Scots, who, with eighty thousand men, had again 



572 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

invaded England, was defeated and taken prisoner on that very- 
day' — a proof, as it was supposed, of th.e king's reconciliation witli 
the heavenly powers. 

Eeturning to Normandy, he recommenced the contest, and finally 
the princes were compelled to accept terms far less advantageous 
than those which he had offered at first. The king of Scotland 
also was obliged to acknowledge Henry as his feudal lord, and to 
yield up the strong fortresses of Berwick and Eoxburgh (1175). 

In 1183, the princes renewed their contests with the king and 
with each other; but the death of Henry and Geofirey ended 
these dif&culties. 

In 1188, Richard, assisted by the king of France, again revolted, 
and the unhappy old monarch, defeated and disappointed every 
where, was compelled to yield to his unreasonable demands. His 
youngest and favourite son, John, for whom he had destined the 
kingdom of Ireland, had also joined the conspiracy against him. 
The king did not long survive these misfortunes, but died of a 
lingering fever on the 6th of July, 1189, refusing to revoke the 
malediction which he had pronounced against his undutiful children. 

With Henry, who possessed no ordinary legislative talents, origin- 
ated the present English system of common law and of circuit courts. 
Trial by jury was also partially developed, though the absurd ordeals 
and wagers of battel still continued to be used. 



CHAPTER 7IL 

EICHAED I., JOHN, AND HENRY III. 

Richard I. (Coeur de Lion), the eldest surviving son of the late 
monarch, was crowned at Westminster Abbey, on the 3d of Sep- 
tember, 1189, in the midst of an outrageous riot directed against 
the Jews, who were every where plundered and murdered through- 
out the city. 

A new crusade had been for some time in progress ; and Richard, 
burning for martial glory, assumed the cross. He raised money for 



ENGLAND. 



573 



the expedition by every possible expedient, even surrendering Ber- 
, wick and Koxburgb to the Scottish king ; and answered to those 
who remonstrated, that he would sell the city of London, if he 
could find a purchaser. 

Having appointed governors for the kingdom, and loaded his 
brother John with titles and possessions, he departed for Palestine. 
Just before this, however, the fierce Crusaders made a fresh attack 
upon the unfortunate Jews, great numbers of whom were massacred 
throughout the kingdom. 

During the sixteen months which he spent in the East, Richard 
acquired the highest renown by his valour and exploits against the 
Saracens. Unable, however, from the defection of his allies, to gain 
possession of Jerusalem, he made a treaty with Saladin, the chiv- 
alrous sultan of Egypt and Syria, and in 1192 embarked from Acre. 

Meanwhile, great disorders prevailed in England. The bishops 
of Durham and Ely, who had been left in charge of the kingdom, 
disagreed, and the former was imprisoned by the latter, who assumed 
the most regal state and authority. Philip of France invaded Nor- 
mandy, and subdued a portion of it; and John, giving out that his 
brother was dead, attempted to seize the throne for himself. 

The king, while travelling through Germany, had been treacher- 
ously seized and imprisoned by the archduke of Austria; and his 
place of confinement was for a long time unknown. At length his 
captors agreed to release him for a ransom of an hundred thousand 
marks ; and after more than a year's captivity, he regained his king- 
dom. On learning of his liberation, Philip wrote to John in these 
words: "Take heed to yourself, for the devil is unchained." 

After being recrowned, (to efface the stain of captivity,) Richard 
set out for the continent, to defend his dominions from the king of 
France. His brother John, with characteristic treachery, massacred 
the French officers and garrison of Evreux, where he was staying; and 
then seeking his brother, obtained pardon for his former treasons. 
The war was continued, with brief intermissions, until the death of 
Richard, which occurred in 1199. While besieging the castle of 
Chaluz, whose owner had refused to surrender an accidentally-dis- 
covered treasure, he was wounded by a bolt from a cross-bow. The 
injury proved mortal, and Richard, having expressed much peni- 
tence, and at his own desire undergone a severe flagellation from 
the clergy, expired in the forty-second year of his age ; leaving a 
lasting reputation for courage, rashness, and violence. 



574 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. 

Thougli Arthur, duke of Brittany, and son of Geoffrey, was tlie 
next lieir to tlie throne, Eichard bequeathed it to his brother John; 
who secured the treasure, as usual, and, after some hesitation, Avas 
crowned at Westminster. Arthur, supported by Phihp, at first 
maintained his own pretensions; but being abandoned by him, was 
obliged to relinquish them, and do homage for Brittany to his uncle. 

In 1202, Arthur, supported by Philip, whose daughter he had 
married, again laid claim to the French provinces ; but was defeated, 
imprisoned, and finally assassinated in secret, probably by the hand of 
John himself Philip continued hostilities, and, aided by the uni- 
versal horror occasioned by this crime, succeeded in wresting from 
John all his continental domains, except Guienne. 

The weak and cruel monarch was next involved in a quarrel with 
Pope Innocent III., arising out of a private ecclesiastical dispute 
between certain monks. Refusing to submit, his kingdom was laid 
under an interdict, which he revenged by despoiling the clergy and 
imprisoning their concubines until large sums were paid for their 
ransom. He sought aid from the emperor of Morocco, and even 
offered to turn Mahometan, if he would assist him against the PojDe. 
The latter, in 1209, next tried an excommunication, and finally 
issued a sentence of deposition against him, the execution of which 
he intrusted to Philip, promising the crown of England and the 
forgiveness of his sins as the reward. 

Great preparations were made by both princes; but just as the 
war was about to commence, John, infinitely to the disappointment 
of Philip, made a mean submission to the Pope, surrendering all 
his possessions to him and to his successors, and agreeing to hold 
them by annual payment of a thousand marks. The clerg}^, more- 
over, brought in an immense bill for damages, which he was 
compelled to satisfy. 

Fresh troubles awaited him. The barons, headed by the primate 
Langton, after vainly demanding pledges for the future reform of 
abuses, assembled a force, and made war upon the king. 

John, finding the whole kingdom arrayed against him, was com- 
pelled to accede to their demands; and on the 19th of June, 1215, 
at Runnymead, signed what is called "The Great Charter," the most 
important instrument in English histor}^ By this celebrated writing, 
the rights of the church and nobility were defined and secured; 
the cities were assured their ancient privileges, and exemption from 
arbitrary taxation; foreign merchants were protected; and it was 



ENGLAND. 575 

provided that no man should be imprisoned or outlawed, except "by 
the legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land." Other 
important matters were also settled. The benefits which have been 
derived from Magna Charta, the foundation of the British constitu- 
tion, are almost incalculable. It was the first and most prominent 
of a long series of patriotic measures, defining and securing the 
liberty of the subject against arbitrary power. 

John, whose rage at this compulsion had been indescribable, 
prepared for revenge. He enlisted great numbers of foreign merce- 
naries; the Pope absolved him from his oath, and excommunicated 
his enemies, declaring them to be worse than Saracens. He marched 
through the northern counties and part of Scotland, ravaging, burn- 
ing, and murdering all before him, while the earl of Salisbury did 
the same in the east. The barons applied for aid to France, and 
Prince Louis, with six hundred and eighty vessels, landed at Sand- 
wich. The afflicted nation was, however, spared further hostilities 
by the death of John, which occurred shortly after, in 1216, in the 
forty-ninth year of his age. He died of a surfeit, leaving a charac- 
ter unsurpassed for meanness, cruelty, and treachery. 

Henry HI., his' son, was but ten years of age when crowned, and 
the earl of Pembroke, a man of great worth, talent, and energy, 
was appointed "governor of the king and kingdom." The Great 
Charter was confirmed, and Louis, who still attempted to gain the 
throne, was defeated, and compelled to leave the kingdom. Pem- 
broke dying in 1219, Hubert de Burgh, the justiciary, contrived to 
engross all power into his own hands for several years ; but was 
finally deposed and imprisoned. Peter des Eoches, a Poitevin, 
bishop of Winchester, succeeded him in the royal favour; but, 
filling all offices with his own countrymen, was overthrown and 
banished by the archbishop of Canterbury. The king made two 
attempts, in 1230 and in 1242, to regain his French domains, but 
unsuccessfully, and at last formally renounced them. 

Henry, a feeble-minded prince, relied almost entirely on the Pope, 
who, in his turn, contrived, under various pretexts, to drain the 
kingdom yearly of immense sums of money. The barons, indignant 
at the large amounts sent out of the country, on one occasion, in 
1243, made a demand for fresh security against misapplication of sup- 
plies; and, in 1248, absolutely refused to grant him any whatever. 

At length, Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and other great 
barons of the realm, formed a fresh confederacy to limit the royal 



576 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

authority. The king was compelled to submit, and a grand council 
was held at Oxford on the 11th of June, 1258. This assembly took 
all power into its own hands, and enacted many resolutions limiting 
the royal prerogative. The barons, however, became so unpopular, 
that in 1261 the king resumed his full authority, and reappointed 
the principal officers of the kingdom, who had been displaced by 
the council. 

In 1263 Leicester, who had gone to France, returned, and reorgan- 
ized the confederacy. They took up arms, and once more compelled 
the king to resign his resumed authority. He, however, took the field 
again, and after farther engagements, the questions in dispute were 
submitted to the arbitration of the king of France (1264). This 
being in favour of the king, the barons refused to abide by it, and 
resumed their arms. The king, supported by many of the great 
families in Scotland and the north of England, assembled an army, 
and a bloody engagement took place at Lewes, in which. the king's 
party were entirely defeated. Five thousand are said to have fallen 
on either side. 

Leicester was now the actual ruler of the kingdom, and used his 
power with great tyranny and rapacity. He carried the king about 
with him, treating him with a semblance of respect, and using his 
name and authority to fortify his own acts. 

The year 1265 is memorable for the foundation of the British 
Parliament. The Grand Council had hitherto consisted only of 
the barons, prelates, and tenants of the crown; but Leicester, on 
this occasion, (probably to secure a majority of supporters,) directed 
the election of "two knights for each county, two citizens for each 
city, and two burgesses for each borough," thus for the first time 
establishing the principle of representation from the people. 

The king and Prince Edward were still kept in custody ; but the 
latter, while riding out with his attendants, escaped on a fleet horse, 
and, assisted by the earl of Gloucester and other barons, commenced 
hostilities against Leicester. In a great battle which ensued at 
Evesham, the old king, cased in armour, was placed by Leicester in 
the front rank; and being unhorsed and wounded, cried out, "I am 
Henry of Winchester." The prince, hearing his voice, ran to his 
assistance, and conveyed him to a place of safety. Leicester and his 
son were slain ; and their army was utterly defeated. The memory 
of Leicester was long cherished by the people, who showed their 
estimate of his character by the title of "Sir Simon the Eighteous." 



ENGLAND. 577 

The power of the confederate barons was completely broken ; and 
the royalists, following up their advantage, under Prince Edward, 
reduced all disaffected parts of the kingdom to submission. The 
prince then sailed for Palestine to join the Crusaders; and during 
his absence the king died, November 20th, 1272, in the sixty-fourth 
year of his age and the fifty-sixth of his reign. His character 
was not marked by any distinguishing traits; and his long reign 
offers few incidents of personal interest. During his time, the trial 
by ordeal was abolished, and a stand was commenced against the 
encroachments of the Church. 



uitiiiiirxiiiiri viiio 

EDWARD I., EDWARD II., AND EDWARD III. 

Prince Edward, with a small force, had sustained the fame of 
Coeur de Lion in the East ; but, overpowered by numbers, was com- 
pelled to make a treaty of peace. On his way home, he learned of 
the death of his father, and after remaining a year in Gruienne, set- 
tling disturbances, he reached his kingdom, and was crowned, at the 
age of thirty-six. 

His first enterprise was against Llewellyn, prince of Wales, who 
had joined the barons in the late rebellion, and who now refused to 
appear and do homage to the crown. In 1277, the king entered his 
country with an army, while his fleet commanded the coast, and 
Llewellyn, imprisoned in the barren regions of Snowden, was com- 
pelled to submit, upon severe terms. These, however, the king 
remitted, and thinking the subjugation of Wales complete, retired. 

Soon after, the Welsh, impatient of the English laws, and encour- 
aged by a prophecy of the enchanter Merlin, again revolted 
throughout the country, and Edward hastened to the scene of 
action. After meeting some reverses, he again defeated them; 
Llewellyn was slain; and the other chiefs made their submission. 
The king remained more than a year in Wales, erecting fortresses, 
and establishing the English system of government. The queen, 
37 



578 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

at this time, gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Edward, to 
conciliate his new subjects, declared to be "Prince of "Wales," a 
title which has ever since been borne by the heir-apparent to the 
British throne. 

After some years, spent in domestic legislation and on the conti- 
nent, the affairs of Scotland attracted his attention, and employed 
the remainder of his reign. 

In 1286, Alexander III. had died; and the "Maid of Norway," 
his grand-daughter, was the next in succession. She was betrothed 
to the son of Edward, but dying in 1290, no less than thirteen pre- 
tenders to the throne started up. To avoid an appeal to arms, it 
was determined by the barons, in 1291, to refer the decision to the 
king of England. 

He readily accepted the office of arbitrator, and advanced with a 
large army to the frontier. Before making his award, however, he 
first required that they should acknowledge his right as feudal lord 
of Scotland. After some hesitation, the various parties interested 
signed an instrument to that effect, and all the royal castles and for- 
tresses were put into the hands of Edward. After examining the 
various claims, he pronounced judgment in favour of John Baliol, 
a descendant of the royal line, and, restoring the fortresses into his 
hands, gave him complete possession of the kingdom. 

The king of England soon found himself engaged in hostilities 
with France ; but ere he quitted the kingdom, difficulties in Wales 
and Scotland induced him to remain. The first he effectually sub- 
dued, and, Baliol refusing to acknowledge his sovereignty, he marched 
with a large army to the frontiers of the latter in 1296. The Scots, 
to draw him away, made an inroad into Cumberland; but, disre- 
garding this, he attacked Berwick, carried it by assault, and put its 
garrison of seven thousand men to the sword. Warrenne, earl of 
Surrey, also gained a great victory at Dunbar, leaving ten thousand 
of the Scots dead upon the field. The whole kingdom now submit- 
ted, and Baliol in person made a formal surrender of his kingdom. 

Edward marched through the country, held a parliament, received 
the homage of the nation, and returned to England; leaving War- 
renne guardian of the kingdom, and filling the principal offices with 
Englishmen. Baliol was taken in honourable captivity to London. 

The king then crossed the sea with a large army, and, without 
much hostility, a treaty was concluded, by which Guienne was 
restored, and he married a sister of the French monarch. 



ENGLAND. 579 

Meanwliile, a fresli insvirrection broke out in Scotland, lieaded by 
William Wallace, a man of gigantic stature, and of great courage 
and patriotism. His successes increased his ranks ; and some of the 
most eminent persons in Scotland joined his standard. Bj Edward's 
orders, Warrenne, who had left the country, raised a large army, and 
advanced to Stirling. Nearly all the chiefs hastened to make sub- 
mission ; but Wallace and Moray, with a large force, engaged the 
English earl at Cambuskenneth, defeated him with great slaughter, 
and compelled him to withdraw into England. They followed up 
their advantage by ravaging the northern counties of the enemy. 

The brave Wallace was made guardian of the kingdom, and 
summoned a parliament. But his success, though brilliant, was 
transitory. Edward returned, and in 1298 invaded Scotland with a 
force of eighty seven thousand men. In a great battle at Falkirk, the 
Scots were entirely routed, with a loss, at the lowest computation, 
of fifteen thousand men. Wallace escaped, but found himself des- 
titute of means to make an effectual resistance. 

The country was again partially conquered, and in 1301, the 
Pope having interfered in behalf of Scotland, a truce was made for 
a time, while the questions in issue were debated. In 1303, Edward 
determined on the final reduction of the kingdom, and despatched 
an army of twenty thousand men, which, however, was defeated. 
The king then marched with a force too great to be resisted, and 
overran the country. Comyn, the guardian of the kingdom, and 
the nobles submitted, Wallace alone -still resisted, but being 
treacherously betrayed, was carried to London, tried, and executed, 
on a fictitious charge of treason. The memory of this champion 
has always been exceedingly dear to the Scottish nation, and many 
remarkable stories are related of his strength and courage. 

In the next year, 1305, the various places of trust were divided 
between the natives and the English ; the Scottish laws were allowed, 
and Edward supposed his conquest finally secured. But in four 
months, the Scots again rose in insurrection, having for their leader 
Eobert Bruce, a descendant of the royal line of Scotland. He was 
crowned at Scone, but was soon defeated, and compelled to take 
refage in the Isle of Eathlin, near Ireland. 

In 1307, he reappeared, and gained some advantages. Edward 
assembled a large army, but before he had proceeded far, died, worn 
out with age and infirmities, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and 
the thirty-fifth of his reign. He had previously engaged his son 



580 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

and tlie Englisli nobles, by a solemn oatb, to prosecute tbe war to 
extremity. This monarcli possessed greater talents than any prince 
who bad yet worn the crown of England ; be bad a strong regard 
for justice; and mucb of bis oppressive conduct in Wales and Scot- 
land was, in tbat day, beld to be justified by tbe feudal law. 

In bis reign, by tbe influence of tbe barons, tbe charters were 
confirmed, and a clause added, securing tbe nation against taxation, 
except by consent of parliament. Tbe present constitution of tbe 
latter was also fiilly established. Many improvements, moreover, 
were made in the laws, and in tbe jurisdiction of courts. 

Edward II. succeeded bis father at the age of twenty-two. 
For some years he did but little in fulfilling bis father's wishes in 
regard to Scotland. The early part of bis reign was troubled by 
the jealousy and anger manifested by the great barons against his 
favourite. Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, to whom be was strongly 
attached, and whom be had loaded with of&ces and honours. After 
several times compelling tbe king to dismiss him, and as often seeing 
him recalled, in 1312 they seized tbe unfortunate favourite, and 
beheaded him near Warwick. 

Meanwhile, Bruce had gradually made himself master of all the 
English strongholds in Scotland. In 1314 Edward, with a large 
army, marched against him, and engaged the Scottish forces at Ban- 
nockburn, near Stirling Castle. Bruce, with forty thousand men, 
bad occupied an advantageous position, which he further strengthened 
by deep pits in front of his line, filled with sharp stakes, and covered 
with turf. Calthrojos, or sharp-pointed frames of iron, were also 
scattered over the ground on which the enemy's cavalry must charge. 

On tbe 24th of June, the English, with a much superior force, 
advanced to the attack, and seeing tbe Scottish ranks upon their 
knees, supposed at first that they were demanding mercy. They 
were speedily undeceived; the resistance was most obstinate, and 
the English suffered a ruinous defeat, to which the appearance of a 
great number of the Scottish camp-followers, mistaken by them for 
another army, somewhat contributed. 

A dreadful famine and pestilence in England succeeded this 
disaster, and Bruce continuing the warfare, recovered Berwick, and 
rendered his kingdom independent. Edward's attachment to a new 
favourite, Hugh le Despencer, again excited the jealousy of tbe 
barons, who rose in arms, but after a protracted contest, were defeated, 
and many of them executed. 



ENGLAND. 5g;l^ 

In 1325, Queen Isabella, sister to tlie king of France, went to 
tliat court, with the prince, her son, for the purpose of arranging 
certain difficulties respecting the French provinces. While there, 
she formed a criraiual connection with Eoger Mortimer, one of the 
revolted barons, who had escaped. She delayed her return under 
various pretexts, and finally, instigated by her paramour, with a 
force of some thousand men, sailed for England, with the intention 
of forcibly suppressing the power of the Despencers. On landing, 
she was joined by many of the barons, with numerous forces, and 
Edward was compelled to fly from London. The Despencers, father 
and son, were captured, and ignominiously executed, on the most 
frivolous charges. 

The unhappy king, closely pursued, surrendered himself, and the 
barons declared the young prince guardian of the kingdom. Soon 
after, his father was formally deposed, and nearly all the peers took 
an oath of allegiance to the youthful heir. The dethroned mon- 
arch, after being carried from castle to castle, and treated with great 
indignity, was barbarously murdered at Berkley, on the 21st of 
September, 1327. 

Mortimer was made earl of March, and the kingdom was entirely 
governed by him and the queen. Bruce, though a truce had been 
agreed upon, invaded the north of England with twenty-four thou- 
sand men, and committed grievous ravages. An army of forty 
thousand, which was sent against him, under the young king, was 
unable to come to an engagement ; and, in the following year, 1328, 
a peace was concluded, in which the independence of Scotland was 
fully acknowledged. 

Mortimer, having all power in his own hands, ruled with great 
insolence, and the young king, now eighteen, was impatient of his 
control. In 1330, assisted by Lord Montacute and others, he seized 
the traitor, assumed the throne, and summoned a parliament. By 
this body, Mortimer was found guilty of the late king's death, and 
of other offences, was condemned, and executed. The queen was 
confined to her private residence. 

In 1332, Bruce being dead, the English claimants of Scottish lands 
put Edward Baliol (the son of John) at their head, and made an 
inroad into Scotland. They completely defeated the Scottish army, 
under the earl of Mar, with immense slaughter. Baliol, however, 
was soon expelled from the kingdom by the earl of Moray, and in 
1333 Edward marched to his assistance. In the battle of Halidon 



582 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Hill, the Scots lost thirty tliousaiid men; Berwick surrendered; 
and David, tlie young king, was compelled to fly into France. 

Baliol was acknowledged sovereign, and the English supremacy 
was once more extended over Scotland. The Scots, however, rose 
again, and after a contest of some years, David returned^ and 
in 1341 resumed his throne. 

Edward's attention, however, was now engrossed by the crown of 
France, to which, in right of his mother, he had advanced an utterly 
unfounded claim. Having formed an alliance with several of the 
continental states, he invaded the French territory in 1339 with 
fifty thousand men, burning and plundering as he went. Philip, 
king of that country, also raised a large army, but no decisive engage- 
ment ensued, and Edward, disbanding his allies, returned to England, 
deeply in debt, having accomplished nothing. 

In 1340, he renewed the war; and a large fleet which Philip had 
stationed at Sluys to oppose him, was destroyed or taken by that of 
the English, and thirty thousand of the French perished. His allies 
now crowded to his standard; and with a force of two hundred 
thousand men, he recommenced hostilities. A great body of these, 
however, taking a sudden alarm, fled. Tournay, strongly garrisoned, 
resisted his arms, and Philip appeared with a large army, but, as 
before, avoided a decisive engagement. By the mediation of Jane 
of Hainault, a relative of both monarchs, hostilities w^ere suspended 
for nine months, and this period, by the intervention of the Pope, 
was afterwards extended. 

The king's debts, and his disputes with the nobility and clergy 
of his realm, occupied him till 1342, when he made a fresh and 
ineffectual attempt. 

In 1345, he induced the parliament to support him in another 
expedition, and despatched the earl of Derby with an army to 
Guienne. This general was exceedingly successful, and in 1346 
Edward, with thirty thousand troops, went over in person. Forty 
thousand Flemings were to invade France at the same time. Land- 
ing in Normandy, he ravaged the country far and near. Thence 
marching up the left bank of the Seine, he burned many towns, and 
carried his incursions to the neighbourhood of Paris itself. Philip, 
with an army on the opposite shore, still protracted the war, avoiding 
a general engagement. 

At length, on the 26th of August, the two armies met at Creci, 
or Cressy, a small village near the coast, the French force being 



ENGLAND, 533 

variously estimated at from sixty thousand to one hundred and 
twenty thousand men. In the midst of a violent storm the battle 
commenced. The result was for a long time doubtful, and the prince, 
a youth of fifteen, distinguished himself by his skill and valour. 
The English archery finally decided the day; thirty-six thousand 
of their enemies were left upon the field, including eleven princes, 
and a host of nobles and gentlemen. It has been said that cannon 
were, in this battle, for the first time employed in warfare, and that 
their use contributed greatly to the victory. 

A few days afterwards Edward laid siege to Calais, which was 
bravely defended by the governor, John de Yienne. At length, 
overcome by famine, the town surrendered in July, 1347, Edward 
having stipulated for the death of six of the principal burgesses. 
Eustache de St. Pierre, and five others of the leading citizens, gener- 
ously offered their lives as a ransom for their countrymen, and, 
according to usage, presented themselves before the victor, half- 
naked, with halters in their hands. He sternly commanded them to 
be led to execution, but at the entreaty of his queen, Philippa, was 
finally induced to spare their lives. The inhabitants were mostly 
expelled from Calais, and it was repeopled with English by the king, 
as a mart for his commerce. 

Meanwhile, David of Scotland, taking advantage of the king's 
absence, had ravaged the north of England ; but was defeated at 
Neville's Cross, in Durham, with a loss of fifteen thousand men ; and, 
being taken prisoner, was carried in triumph to London, with several 
of his nobility. 

Calais being captured, an armistice took place, which, by the 
influence of the Pope, was protracted for six years. In 1348 Eng- 
land, as well as the rest of Europe suffered from a dreadful plague, 
which carried off vast numbers of the inhabitants. 

Negotiations being fruitless, the war with France was resumed in 
1355, John having succeeded his father Philip on the throne, 
Edward the Black Prince, (so called from his armour,) who had 
already distinguished himself at Cressy and elsewhere, marched 
eastward from Bourdeaux, with sixty thousand men, wasting and 
ravaging the country, as usual. He returned from this expedition 
in seven weeks, having in that time destroyed more than five hun- 
dred cities, towns, and villages. 

The king, who had also commenced an expedition from Calais, 
was recalled by hostilities which had broken out in Scotland, and 



584 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

having purchased Baliol's claim to the throne, marched through the 
country, burning and devastating it in all directions. 

In the autumn, the prince, with twelve thousand troops, set forth 
upon another marauding expedition, and near the town of Poictiers 
fell in with a large army, commanded by King John in person. 
The English archery, as usual, proved triumphant ; the French were 
defeated, and King John himself, with his son Philip, after a dis- 
astrous battle was taken prisoner. The captive monarch was treated 
with the highest distinction, the prince waiting upon him in person, 
and, on their arrival in England, the castle of "Windsor was assigned 
him for a residence. 

The king of Scotland had now been eleven years a prisoner ; but 
was set at liberty on payment of a hundred thousand marks, and 
the surrender of important hostages. 

The French nobility rejecting the terms which had been offered 
for the liberation of their king, Edward, in 1359, with an hundred 
thousand men, again invaded France. After ravaging Picardy, and 
advancing to the gates of Paris, he was compelled to retire by the 
want of provisions; and a treaty was finally signed, by which it 
was agreed that he should resign all his pretensions, retaining 
only Poitou, Guienne, and Ponthieu, and the towns of Calais and 
Guisnes, and that three millions crowns of gold should be paid as a 
ransom for John. 

Edward the Black Prince was next engaged in an expedition for 
the purpose of restoring Peter lY., king of Castile, to his throne. 
He was afterwards involved in war with Charles, who had succeeded 
his father John upon the throne, and being compelled by ill-health 
to return to England, the few possessions of that nation in France 
were mostly lost to her. He died in 1376, in the forty-sixth year of 
his age, leaving the highest reputation for magnanimity and chival- 
rous courage, though tinctured with the ferocity of the times. His 
son Pichard was declared heir to the throne. 

The king soon followed his son. He died the following year, 
like the Conqueror, plundered and deserted by his attendants in his 
last moments. His death occurred on the 21st of June, 1377, in 
the sixty-fifth year of his age, after a reign of fifty years. 

The military renown and general success of this long and brilliant 
reign, have rendered the names of Edward III. and his son among 
the most prominent in English history. The constitution and the 
power of parliament profited by the very ambition of the king; for his 




GARTER E:IN&-AT-ARMS, CHIEF HERALD OF ENGLAND, 

IN THE COSTUME OF Till? TIME OF HENRY Till 



ENGLAND. 



585 



anxiety to gain supplies induced him to reform grievances, and more 
distinctly to acknowledge tlie rights of those on whom he depended. 

It was thus fully established that money could not be raised with- 
out the votes of parliament; that the laws should not be altered, 
except by authority of both houses; and that the commons might 
impeach the high oflS.cers for misconduct. The laws of treason, which 
had heretofore been a potent instrument of royal oppression, were 
defined and limited nearly to their present form. The theory and 
practice of law were also wonderfully improved and polished. 

Manufactures were encouraged, and foreign artisans invited to 
settle in England. The avaricious demands of the Pope were some- 
what checked, and the project was even entertained of resisting his 
authority altogether. The castle of Windsor was built by Edward, 
and the renowned "Order of the Garter" was instituted by him. 



kj iLJj JjOi <L vj (Xj dub Jj l6uj o 

RICHAED II., AND HENRY IV. 

RiCHAED, at the age of eleven, received the crown of his grand- 
father. A council of regency was appointed, and the war with 
France was slowly continued. A new poll-tax, levied for the purpose 
of carrying it on, gave rise in 1381 to a most dangerous insurrec- 
tion. For a long time, great oppression of the poorer classes had 
prevailed; and the cultivators of the soil were mostly in a state of 
serfdom, similar to that of the Russians at the present day. By 
degrees, however, a spirit of freedom and resistance to tyranny had 
become generally diffused; and was first called into action by the 
outrageous insolence of the collectors of this tax. 

In Kent and Essex, the people rose in great numbers, and under 
three leaders, Wat the Tyler, John Ball, a priest, and another who 
assumed the name of Jack Straw, took up their march for London, 
pillaging the country as they went, and cutting off the heads of all 
lawyers, justices, and jurors. They arrived at the capital, one hun- 
dred thousand strong, broke open the prisons, and plundered the 



586 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

palaces of several of the nobility. The city was completely in their 
power, and if any one refused to join in crying out their watch- 
word, his head was immediately struck off. The young king met 
them at Mile End, and listened to their demands. 

These were, the abolition of slavery, and the services of villanage, 
freedom from market-tolls, and a general pardon. These terms were 
at once acceded to ; and the multitude dispersed, and returned to 
their homes. During this conference, however, Wat Tyler had 
broken into the town, and murdered the treasurer, the archbishop, 
and other obnoxious persons. 

As Richard, the next day, rode through the city with a small 
train, he encountered Tyler in Smithfield, at the head of twenty 
thousand men. The popular leader, riding up to the king, com- 
menced a conference ; but, as he seized the royal bridle, was stabbed 
by "Walworth the Lord Mayor. The youthful king, with great 
presence of mind, galloped to the head of his tumultuary forces, 
pacified them, and dismissed them to their homes. 

The nobles and gentry now rallied around the king with a force 
of forty thousand men; and in compliance with their advice, he 
revoked the charters which he had lately granted, and executed 
fifteen hundred of the insurgents. 

In the year 1384, the Scots, with a body of French auxiliaries, 
having made an incursion into England, the king, at the head of 
eighty thousand -men, marched into Scotland, and laid it waste. 

In 1386, the parliament and nobles, excited by the duke of Glou- 
cester, the king's uncle, insisted on the removal of his ministers, 
and after fruitless opposition, he was compelled to yield. A com- 
mission of fourteen lords and prelates, with Gloucester at its head, 
was also appointed to regulate the affairs of the kingdom for a year. 

The king, enraged at this compulsion, took private measures for 
revenge; but Gloucester and his party, with forty thousand men, 
overawed all movements in his favour. In 1388, a parliament being 
summoned, several of the accused ministers and their adherents 
were ignominiously executed. Gloucester and his party held their 
power about a year longer; but becoming unpopular, the king was 
enabled to dismiss them, and take the government into his own hands. 

For eight years he ruled without opposition ; and seemed recon- 
ciled to the duke and his adherents. In 1394, he visited Ireland 
with a large force, and received the homage of the English and the 
native chiefe. Three years afterwards, however, Richard, who had 



ENGLAND. 



587 



never forgiven the dictatorsliip of his nncle Gloucester, had him 
arrested and conveyed to Calais; and other distinguished nobles 
who had belonged to his faction were tried; and exiled or beheaded. 
The death of the duke himself, in prison, was also shortly given 
out, and there can be little doubt that he was murdered by command 
of the king. 

Having strengthened his position by distributing titles and hon- 
ours among his relations and supporters, the king began to exhibit 
a stronger and more arbitrary will. He maintained ten thousand 
archers; and the nobles, viewing his treachery and revengeful 
disposition, began to feel unsafe, and to meditate a change. 

He removed, as he supposed, in 1398, the last of his powerful 
enemies, by banishing from England the dukes of Norfolk and 
Hereford, the latter being the son of his uncle, the duke of Lancaster, 
and both formerly adherents of Gloucester, 

His position was now that of an absolute monarch. As a per- 
petual subsidy had been granted him, he was under no necessity for 
calling or conciliating parliaments; but by his forced loans, and 
other acts of oppression, he completely alienated the affections of 
his people. 

They now began to turn their thoughts to his exiled cousin, Henry 
duke of Hereford. This feeling was enhanced by the injustice of 
Richard, who, on the death of Lancaster, instead of allowing his 
estates to descend to Hereford, seized them for himself 

While the king was absent on an expedition to Ireland, in 1399, 
the banished duke landed in Yorkshire, and averring that he only 
sought to recover his rights, was joined by the powerful earls of 
Westmoreland and ISTorthumberland. The duke of York, Eichard's 
uncle, who had been left as regent, at first assembled a force to oppose 
him; but after an interview with Hereford, (also his nephew,) joined 
forces with him. Their army, numbering an hundred thousand, 
appeared before Bristol ; the castle surrendered, and some of Rich- 
ard's favourites were executed without even the formality of a trial. 

The king, on learning the disastrous intelligence, sent over the 
earl of Salisbury, and ere long followed to Wales in person ; but 
his army deserted in all directions, and he was compelled to despatch 
messengers to Henry to learn his intentions. The latter artfully 
feigned submission, on certain conditions, and thus induced the king 
to trust himself in his hands ; Richard, however, privately assuring 
his friends of the terrible revenge which he would take at some 



588 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

future time. On beholding the immense force of his enemy, and 
finding himself a prisoner, he broke into weeping and lamentation. 

Henry received him with a mixture of respect and severity, com- 
pelled him to issue a summons for a parliament, and took him close 
prisoner to London, where he was lodged in the tower. Here threats 
and promises were successfully used to induce him to resign the 
crown ; and he assented to an act of abdication, appointing the duke 
of Hereford his successor. 

On the 29th of September, both houses met in Westminster Hall. 
The act of resignation was read, thirty-three articles of impeach- 
ment were preferred, and the deposition of Eichard was unanimously 
voted. Henry then publicly claimed the throne, and his demand 
was at once admitted as valid. 

There can be no doubt that the dethronement of Richard, and 
the elevation of Henry of Bolingbroke, was the result of universal 
popular feeling throughout England ; and the latter may therefore 
be regarded as the rightful occupant of the throne, and the house 
of Lancaster as his rightful successors. 

The dethroned monarch was only thirty -four years of age ; and it 
was resolved by the lords that he should be kept in close custody. 
The zeal of certain of his adherents hastened the fate which usually 
awaits captive princes. An insurrection in his favour was set on 
foot in 1400, but was speedily suppressed, and the leaders were mostly 
executed. The death of Richard himself was announced soon after- 
wards, and it was generally supposed that he had been starved to 
death by order of the king. Other accounts say that he was mur- 
dered by Sir Piers of Exton, who came to his prison with seven 
followers, and slew him after a desperate defence, in which he killed 
several of his assailants. However this may be, there can hardly 
be a doubt that he was taken off, in some manner, by the authority 
of Henry. 

With John Wickliffe, who died in the reign of Richard, com- 
menced the first movement for a reformation in the church. He 
preached fiercely against the doctrine of transubstantiation, against 
indulgences, pardons, excommunications, and other abuses of the 
papal authority. A number of bulls were issued against him from 
Rome, and he was compelled to answer for his heresies before an 
ecclesiastical tribunal; but, by a dexterous evasion, and supported 
by some of the leading nobles, he escaped with tolerable impunity, 
and died in retirement in 1384. Thirty years afterwards, his remains. 



ENGLAND. 539 

by an order of tile council of Constance, were dug up, burned, and 
thrown into the river Swift. His doctrines, however, spread widely, 
and his followers, who were remarkable for the austerity of their 
morals, received the name of Lollards, derived, it is said, from the 
Dutch Lolhn^ "to sing," 

Parliament, immediately after the elevation of Henry, proceeded 
to confer on his eldest son the title of Prince of Wales, and in other 
ways to strengthen the authority of the new dynasty. He claimed 
the homage of Scotland, and not receiving it, advanced with an army 
as far as Edinburgh ; but was compelled to retire by the want of 
supplies. A border-war was, however, kept up, and in 1402, the 
earl of Douglas, with ten thousand men, having marched into Eng- 
land, was encountered at Homildon by the earl of Northumberland, 
with his son Henry Percy, called Hotspur, and was defeated and 
made prisoner. 

In the next year, 1403, a Welsh gentleman, named Owen Glen- 
dour, being aggrieved, took the law into his own hands, and was 
outlawed. He immediately declared himself sovereign of Wales ; 
his countrymen flocked to his standard ; his reputation as a magi- 
cian confirming • his authority among the credulous inhabitants. 
The king. Prince Henry, and other leaders, repeatedly attempted 
the conquest of the rebellious province, but were in every instance 
compelled to retire by the weather,- the natural difficulties of the 
country, and the skill and valour of their foe. To add to the king's 
embarrassment, Northumberland, with his son and brother, irritated 
by ill-treatment, formed a hostile confederacy with Glendour, Doug- 
las, and other renowned nobles. With a large force they marched 
toward Wales, and encountered Henry at Shrewsbury. On the 
21st of July, the two armies, each about fourteen thousand in num- 
ber, engaged. Hotspur and Douglas, with sixty followers, plunged 
into the centre of the royal forces, seeking the king's person, and 
killed four of his friends, who had assumed his arms to baffle the 
assailants. Percy fell by a chance arrow ; Douglas was made pris- 
oner, and after a contest of three hours, victory was decided in favour 
of the king. Both armies suffered great loss. Several of the captive 
nobles were executed, but Northumberland received a pardon, and 
Douglas was honourably treated. 

Fresh insurrections succeeded. In 1405, Archbishop Scrope, 
Northumberland, and others raised a force of eight thousand men, 
and announced their intention of dethroning the king. By the arti- 



590 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

fice of Prince Jolin, they were induced to lay down tlieir arms, and 
tlie leaders were then seized and beheaded, Wales was gradually 
reduced to submission ; but Owen Glendour still held out in the 
mountainous and inaccessible regions, and retained his independence 
during his life. 

At this time, accident threw a fresh advantage into the hands of 
Henry, by which he meanly profited. James, the heir to the Scot- 
tish throne, sailing to France, when only nine years old, was captured 
by an English cruiser. The king detained him as prisoner, and was 
thus enabled to control the dishonest regent of Scotland, by threat- 
ening to release the rightful claimant to the throne. The prince, 
however, was carefully and liberally educated, 

No events of much importance occurred during the remainder of 
this reign. The king was frequently rendered uneasy by the, wild- 
ness and dissipation of his son Prince Henry, who, though brave 
and talented, chose to associate with low and riotous companions. 
One of these having been arrested, and brought before Gascoigne, 
the chief justice, the prince interceded for his release; and the 
request being refused, drew his sword, or, as others say, dealt the 
judge a box upon the ear. The latter instantly ordered him to be 
committed to jail, to which the prince, probably struck with shame, 
promptly submitted. The king, on being informed of the circum- 
stance, exclaimed, "Happy the monarch who has a judge so resolute 
in discharge of his duty, and a son so willing to submit to the laws!" 

Henry died on the 20th of March, 1413, in the forty-sixth year 
of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign. His abilities were great, 
though his character is deeply stained by the murder of his royal 
kinsman. The horrible writ, "c/e liCBretico coviburendo^^'' for Ifurning 
heretics, was introduced in his reign, and several of the Lollards fell 
victims to the persecution of the priests. The commons took 
advantage of his wish to conciliate them, to gain additional privi- 
leges, and, among others, that of freedom from arrest. They also 
established their right to appropriate, as well as to vote supplies. 
As a proof of the less absolute authority of the clergy with the 
people, we may observe that the commons once recommended 
Henry to seize great part of the church possessions for the public 
revenue; but the king, well aware of the value of the clerical 
support, peremptorily refused compliance. 



ENGLAND. 591 



HENET v., AND HENRY VI. 

The national joy at tlie accession of the young and popular prince 
was enhanced by the reformation of his manners, and the judicious 
commencement of his reign. The increasing persecution of the 
Lollards alone rendered the aspect of affairs unpromising. The 
most notable and able convert to the new doctrines was Sir John 
Oldcastle, Baron of Cobham, whom the king in person undertook 
to convince of his error. Remaining firm, he was consigned to the 
authority of the bishops, and was found guilty of heresy. Before 
the execution of his sentence, however, he escaped from the tower, 
and, with others of his party, formed, it is alleged, a conspiracy 
against the crown. This was frustrated, and thirty-nine of the pris- 
oners taken on this occasion, were executed as traitors and heretics, 
Avith the most atrocious cruelty. Four years afterwards, Cobham, 
who had fled into Wales, was captured, and shared the same fate. 

France was at this period in a most distracted condition. The 
king, Charles VI., being subject to fits of insanity, the control of 
affairs was disputed between his brother the duke of Orleans, and 
his cousin the duke of Burgundy. The former was assaasinated by 
the latter, and Henry, taking advantage of the defenceless state of 
the country, advanced his claim to the crown. This being rejected, 
he demanded Normandy, Maine, and Anjou, also making other 
extravagant claims ; and though splendid offers were made him, he 
prepared for war. 

A treasonable scheme among some of the high nobles of his realm 
interrupted the king's preparations; but the conspirators were 
speedily apprehended, condemned, and executed. 

On the 14th of August, 1415, he landed with fifteen hundred 
vessels at the mouth of the Seine, and disembarked thirty thousand 
men, four-fifths of whom were archers. After a siege of five weeks, 
he took Harfleur, but his army was meantime reduced by sickness 
and fighting to one-half of its original number. However, the king 
resolved to march to Calais, and on the 25th of October, encoun- 
tered a French army of fifty thousand horse, near Azincourt. The 



592 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

English, arcliery, as usual, created great confusion among tlie ranks of 
their enemies ; and taking advantage of this, the undaunted bowmen, 
witk their swords and battle-axes, rushed into the first division of 
the French, and entirely routed it, killing the principal officers. 
After a long contest, victory remained with the English. Their 
adversaries had lost their bravest leaders, and an immense number 
of knights and soldiers. After remaining a short time in Calais, 
the king returned to England, amid the enthusiastic rejoicings of 
his subjects. 

His brother, the duke of Bedford, carried on the war, and in 1417 
tbe king, with an army of sixteen thousand men-at-arms, and as 
many archers, landed in Lower Normandy; which, during the 
winter and following spring, he entirely reduced. Meanwhile, the 
Burgundian faction, with whom he had negotia,ted, seized upon 
Paris, and massacred all who opposed them. The successes of 
Henry, however, alarmed both parties, and they reunited to save 
the I 'try. An interview with the invader was proposed ; and on 
the 30th of May, 1419, the duke of Burgundy, with the queen and 
Princess Catharine, met him near Meulant. 

Henry, captivated by the grace and beauty of the princess, became 
more accessible to proposals for peace, demanding, however, JSTor- 
mandy, and certain other provinces. The negotiations were artfully 
protracted by the French for a whole month ; and in the mean time 
the dauphin (heir to the crown) and the duke of Burgundy came 
to an agreement, and resolved to turn their arms against the 
common enemy. 

Henry's prospects, now apparently gloomy, were revived by the 
murder of the duke, who was treacherously despatched by the 
attendants of the dauphin at an interview with the latter. His heir 
hastened to conclude a treaty with King Henry, who was thus ena- 
bled to dictate his own terms. These were, the hand of the Princess 
Catharine, the regency of France during the king's life-time, and 
the crown at his death. These severe conditions were acceded to 
by the helpless monarch, and the marriage shortly after took place. 

The states general approved the treaty, and in 1421 Henry, with 
his bride, returned to England, His brother, the duke of Clarence, 
whom he had left in command of Normandy, attempting an expedi- 
tion into Anjou, which remained faithftil to the dauphin, was defeated 
by the Marshal La Fayette, assisted by seven thousand Scots. On 
learning of this disaster the king, with twenty-eight thousand troops, 



ENGLAND. 



593 



instantly returned to France, defeated the daupliin, drove him to 
Bourges, and gained possession of all France north of the Loire, 
except Anjou and Maine. 

His victories ended here ; for in the same year, he was seized with 
a distemper incurable by the ignorance of the day, and died in the 
tenth year of his reign, and the thirty-fourth of his age, leaving an 
infant of nine months heir to the crown. The brilliant successes 
of this prince have rendered his name very dear to the English. 
His abilities were undoubted, but the stain of cruelty will always cling 
to his memory. 

His queen, Catharine, after his death, married a Welsh gentleman, 
Sir Owen Tudor. Their descendants afterwards sat upon the throne 
of England. 

During the minority of the new king, Henry YI., parliament 
appointed a council of regency, with John, duke of Bedford, the 
late king's brother, at its head, under the title of Protector; and 
Burgundy having declined the regency of France, that also was 
conferred upon him. Within two months, the French king died. 
His son, the dauphin, instantly assumed the title of Charles YII., 
and was crowned and anointed. The duke of Bedford, in alliance 
with Burgundy and Brittany, continued the war, and gained import- 
ant successes. 

At this time Earl Douglas, with five thousand men, having gone 
to the assistance of Charles, it was thought advisable to dismiss King 
James of Scotland, on payment of the sum of forty thousand pounds, 
and a promise to forbid his subjects from entering the service of 
France. To these conditions he acceded, and, after nineteen years 
of captivity, returned to his country ; where he proved the ablest 
monarch who had ever sat upon the Scottish throne. 

In 1424 Bedford, with seven thousand men, defeated an army of 
more than double the number, under the constable of France, at 
Verneuil. Sixteen hundred of the English fell, and three thousand 
of their opponents — among them, the constable and Earl Douglas. 
For some years after this, the war languished for want of means on 
both sides; but in 1429, the city of Orleans was besieged by the 
English, and its fall seemed inevitable. At this gloomy period of 
French history, when Charles even thought of retiring into exile, a 
new and extraordinary person appeared upon the stage, and raised 
his fallen fortunes. 

In a small village of Champagne dwelt a peasant named Jacques 
38 



594 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOPvY. 

D'Arc, wliose daughter, Joan, was remarkable for her piety and 
abstraction of mind. From long dwelling on the misfortunes of her 
country, she began to see visions, and finally imagined that the saints 
appeared to her, and urged her to undertake the defence of France. 
Obtaining an interview with Charles, she so far impressed him with 
belief in her divine mission, that a council of clergy and divines 
was appointed to examine the case at Poictiers. They pronounced 
her to be inspired, and, mounted on a splendid gray charger, she 
repaired to the camp at Blois. A secret religious terror seized the 
minds of the English, which was increased when she led the French 
army to Orleans, and, fighting valiantly at their head, compelled the 
invaders to retire. 

After losing a number of posts, they retreated towards Paris, 
under Lord Talbot; but were overtaken and defeated, with a loss of 
twelve hundred men. In compliance with the vision of the heroic 
Maid of Orleans, (as she was now called,) Charles set out for Kheims, 
and was there solemnly crowned in the manner of his ancestors. 
She now declared that her mission was performed, and entreated 
permission to return to her native village. The king, however, 
induced her to remain ; ennobled the family ; and conferred a large 
pension upon her. 

The dukes of Bedford and Burgund}^, though disheartened, 
continued hostilities, and the Maid still opposed them with great 
skill and courage; but in 1430 was captured in a skirmish by some 
of the troops of the latter, and sold for a large price to the duke of 
Bedford. Being examined before an ecclesiastical tribunal, com- 
posed of the creatures of the English, she was condemned as a 
heretic, and, to the eternal disgrace of the English name, was 
burned at Rouen, on the 30th of May, 1431. 

This piece of cruelty was of no service to its authors. The pro- 
tracted war which succeeded, was mostly to the disadvantage of the 
English. After various attempts at negotiation, the duke of Bur- 
gundy made peace with France ; and finally, in 1435, Bedford, the 
able leader of the English, died. Paris opened its gates to the 
French, and the duke of Burgundy took up arms in their behalf. 
Lord Talbot and other of the English leaders still stubbornly main- 
tained the contest; but in 1444, an armistice for two years was 
agreed on. 

Meanwhile, the youthful king of England had been advancing to 
man's estate, and displaying little capacity. His temper was mild 



ENGLAND. / 595 

and thouglitful, but he was evidently ill-adapted to govern a great 
and spirited nation. Cardinal Beaufort and the duke of Gloucester, 
his nephew and the king's uncle, divided the power, and were 
bitterly at variance. It was probably at the instance of the former 
that the duchess, in 1441, was accused of treason and sorcery. She 
was said to have made, with her accomplices, a waxen image of the 
king, and exposed it to a gentle heat, that his majesty might pine 
away and die, and the duke (his next heir) succeed to the throne. 
Her confederates were executed, and she was compelled to do public 
penance, and was then consigned to custody for life. 

Through the cardinal's influence, Henry, in his twenty-fourth year, 
was married to Margaret, daughter of Ren6, a nominal king, to 
whom Anjou and Maine, which he held in title, were resigned. 
Beautiful, spirited, and accomplished, she entirely ruled the king, and 
Beaufort, Somerset, and Norfolk, her favourites, ruled the kingdom. 

In 1447, Gloucester was arrested on a charge of treason, and 
shortly afterwards was found dead in his bed. It is asserted that he 
was murdered by his enemies. Much of his estate went to the duke 
of Suffolk ; and other circumstances seemed to prove the connivance 
of the court. He was generally lamented, the title of "Good Duke 
Humphrey," showing his popularity. The cardinal in a few weeks 
followed him, at the age of eighty, grieving that he must quit life 
in the midst of his successful intrigues. 

Maine and Anjou being surrendered, the French soon got pos- 
session of all Normandy and Guienne ; and in 1451, all that remained 
of the English conquests and possessions was the port of Calais. 
The popular indignation fell chiefly on Suffolk, who had arranged 
the match with Margaret, and delivered up Anjou and Maine, the 
keys of Normandy. He was committed to the tower, and articles of 
impeachment were brought against him. These failing, the king 
banished him from the kingdom, and, landing at Calais, he was exe- 
cuted by the crew of a king's ship, probably by the instruction of 
his powerful enemies at co^urt. 

Immediately afterwards, a body of twenty thousand men gathered 
in Kent, under the command of an adventurer named John Cade. 
They demanded of the court the banishment of certain obnoxious 
nobles; the punishment of those who had caused the death of 
Gloucester, Warwick, and Exeter, with the loss of the French 
provinces; and the abolition and punishment of extortion. 

The royal forces sent against them were defeated ; the insurgents 



596 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. 

marched to London, and executed the royal chamberlain, Lord Say, 
and the sheriff of Kent. The citizens at last took up arms, defended 
the bridge, and the insurgents gradually dispersed. Their leader, 
being pursued by the sheriff, was slain, after an obstinate resistance. 

The disputes between Somerset and the duke of York had for 
some time embroiled the kingdom; and the latter had more than 
once raised forces to overawe the government. He was arrested, 
but dismissed without injury by the feeble monarch. 

In 1453 the English, who had sent forces into France to regain 
Gascony, were defeated under Talbot, the earl of Shrewsbury, and 
lost their last footing in Gruienne. This increased the odium of the 
court and queen ; and the king soon fell into a state of such imbe- 
cility, that he could no longer even play the part of royalty. Somerset 
was committed to the tower, and York was appointed by the peers 
Protector during the king's incapacity. The king partially recov- 
ering, Somerset regained his liberty and influence, and York lost 
the protectorate. He retired to his estates, where, being joined by 
the duke of Norfolk, and the earls of Salisbury and "Warwick, he 
raised three thousand men. They marched toward London, and, 
though professing loyalty, demanded the delivery to them of Somer- 
set and others. This being refused, a skirmish with the royal forces 
ensued, in which Somerset and others of distinction were slain, and 
the king, wounded, fell into the hands of the insurgents. 

Parliament was summoned, and he was compelled to justify the 
rebels, whose chief, the duke of York, was again declared Protector. 
But in 1456, the king so far recovered his reason, that the queen and 
her party were enabled to dismiss the duke, and hold the government 
in their own hands. 

Por two years the mutual jealousy of the factions continued; and 
the nation was gradually divided into the parties of York and Lan- 
caster. In 1458, indeed, by the mediation of the primate and 
others, an agreement and a public reconciliation were effected. It 
was, however, only superficial, and their concealed hatred was kin- 
dled into a flame by a trifling occurrence. Warwick's servants and 
the queen's having engaged in a quarrel, the latter attacked the earl 
himself, who with difficulty escaped from their hands. He retired 
in anger to his qastle, and thence to Calais, of which he was governor. 

Both parties now prepared for open hostilities, and the duke of 
York advanced a claim to the crown. This he founded on his de- 
scent from Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and third son of Edward III., 



ENGLAND. 



597 



alleging his title superior to tliat of tlie king, wlio was descended 
from John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the fourth. But by act of 
parliament, and the almost unanimous consent of the realm, the 
house of Lancaster had occupied the throne for three generations; 
and the dynasty under which the duke claimed, had itself, by force 
or policy, taken the place of former lineal successors to the throne, so 
that his claim was no more valid than that of the descendants of the 
ancient Saxon line, or of the Britons before them. The weakness 
of the king, and the power of his own faction, however, gave the 
duke a fair prospect of success. His main supporters were the earls 
of Salisbury, Warwick, and Norfolk; but the greater part of the 
nobles remained faithful to the king. As the red rose was the cogni- 
zance of the house of Lancaster, and the white that of York, their 
partisans assumed these for their respective badges ; and the contest 
which ensued was, in consequence, called the "War of the Eoses." 

Both sides made preparation for the ensuing struggle; but no 
event of importance took place until the autumn of 1459, when 
Salisbury defeated the royal forces under Lord Audley, in Stafford- 
shire, with a loss of two thousand men. An army of sixty thousand, 
however, was soon levied by the king; and York, overawed, fled 
into Ireland, while his confederates betook themselves to Calais. 
They were all shortly after attainted by act of parliament. 

Undismayed, however, Warwick, the following June, landed with 
a small force of fifteen hundred men, which, by the time he reached 
London, was increased to twenty-five thousand. He thence marched 
to Northampton, and engaged the royal army, which by the treach- 
ery of one of the leaders, was defeated ; several nobles of eminence 
were slain; and the king himself was taken prisoner. The queen 
and Prince Edward escaped into Scotland. The duke of York has- 
tened to return from Ireland, and put in his claim to the crown. 
After the question had been debated before the peers, they proposed, 
as a compromise, that Henry should retain the crown during his 
life, and that afterwards it should pass to the duke or his heirs. To 
this, both parties solemnly agreed. 

The queen, however, who was in the North, determined not to 
surrender the rights of her son ; and, supported by Northumberland, 
Clifford, and other lords, recommenced the war. York immediately 
marched against them; but was defeated with much loss at Wake- 
field Green, and taken prisoner. His captors, after seating him on 
an ant-hill, and crowning him in derision with twisted grass, struck 



598 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OY HISTOEY. 

off his head, and presented it on a pole to the queen, who was 
delighted with the sight. Salisbury and twelve others shared his fate. 
His son, a youth of seventeen, was stabbed by the ruthless Clifford. 

Edward, earl of March, his eldest son, had at this time a body of 
twenty-three thousand men, with which he defeated the earls of 
Pembroke and Ormond, beheading the captives, in revenge for the 
execution of his friends at "Wakefield, The earl of Warwick and 
the duke of Norfolk, taking the king with them, were defeated at 
St. Albans by the queen, who thus regained possession of her 
husband. Further execu.tions followed. 

Edward, however, uniting his forces with those of Warwick, soon 
gained such advantages, that she was compelled to return to the 
North; and he entered London, where he was very popular, in 
triumph. The people were shortly after harangued by his orators, 
who, in a large assembly, asked what king they would have, and, 
with great enthusiasm, decided in favour of Edward. The next 
day, March 4th, 1461, in a great council, it was decided that Henry, 
by joining the queen's party, had violated the award, and forfeited 
the throne. Edward was immediately proclaimed king. 

During the latter reigns, the power of the House of Commons 
had been continually increasing; and in the last the elective fran- 
chise was limited to freeholders, of the annual income of forty 
shillings. 



EDWARD IV., EDWARD V,, AND RICHARD III. 

The Lancastrian faction, with sixty thousand men, still main- 
tained a hostile position at York. . The king and Warwick left 
London to engage them ; and, with a force of forty-nine thousand, 
reached Pontefract. After various skirmishes, a general engage- 
ment came on, in the midst of a heavy snow driving against the 
Lancastrians. They fought with obstinacy till evening, when, in 
retreating, they were routed; and as Edward had issued orders to 
give no quarter, nearly half their number perished. The next day. 



ENGLAND. 599 

lie entered York, took down the heads of his father and friends, 
and replaced them with those of his enemies. 

On the 29th of June, he was crowned at London with great 
magnificence, and created his brothers, George a,nd Eichard, dukes 
of Clarence and Grloucester. Parliament declared the Henries usurp- 
ers ; and an attainder was passed against the late royal family and a 
great number of their chief adherents. 

Margaret, with some assistance from France and Scotland, made 
one more attempt, and was at first tolerably successful; but the 
approach of Edward and Warwick, with a large force, overawed her 
partisans, and she returned to France. 

In 1464, Henry, who had retreated into Scotland, was induced 
once again to take the field, but was defeated, and his chief remain- 
ing adherents were executed. He remained concealed for more than 
a year, but was discovered by treachery, carried to London in an 
ignominious manner, and lodged in the tower. Fresh attainders 
ruined the Lancastrians and rewarded the victors. 

The king now publicl}'' acknowledged as his queen the lady 
Elizabeth Grey, whom he had privately married the year before. 
AH her relations were ennobled, enriched, or elevated to high 
ofS.ces; and the promotion of this new family strongly excited the 
jealousy of the Nevilles and other powerful supporters of the king. 

In 1469, Clarence married the daughter of Warwick, in spite of 
the king's opposition; and the result was a union of these powerful 
nobles against the crown. A great insurrection immediately broke 
out in Yorkshire, and was finally headed by the nephew and cousin 
of Warwick. The insurgents, sixty thousand strong, demanded the 
removal of the Woodvilles (the queen's relations) and the abolition 
of oppressive taxes. Lord Hubert, who went against them, was 
defeated with a loss of five thousand men, and Lord Eivers (the 
queen's father) and his son John being taken, were executed. 

Clarence and Warwick, arriving from Calais, took the king into 
custody ; but (the Lancastrians rising) released him, and a general 
amnesty was granted ; concessions were made to the hostile nobles, 
and an apparent reconciliation was effected. Warwick and his son-in- 
law, however, soon excited a new rebellion, which being suppressed, 
and the leaders executed, they fled to Calais, and thence to the court 
of Louis XL, king of France. Margaret, King Henry's wife, was 
residing there with her son, and by the mediation of Louis, an alli- 
ance was formed among the exiles, and cemented by the marriage 



QQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

of Prince Edward to Warwick's second daughter, Anne. It was 
agreed to restore King Henry to the throne, and, in case that Edward 
should die without issue, Clarence and his heirs should inherit. 

On the 13th of September, 1470, they landed at Plymouth, where 
Warwick proclaimed King Henry, and summoned all to join his 
standard. Edward, out-manoeuvred, and deserted by his troops, 
fled to Holland. The allies hastened to London; and on the 13th 
of October, Henry, wearing the crown, walked in procession to St. 
Paul's. A parliament being summoned, reversed the acts of the 
preceding reign, and restored the houses of Lancaster and Neville 
to their former honours and possessions. Only one execution fol- 
lowed this complete revolution. 

In 1471, assisted by Burgundy, Edward returned, and landed at 
Eavenspur on the 14th of March. He solemnly avowed, however, 
that he had no further design than to recover the estates of York, 
and his followers shouted "Long live King Henry!" Finding him- 
self at the head of a respectable force, he threw off the mask, and 
was joined by Clarence, already discontented with the new arrange- 
ment. Pushing on to London, he seized Henry, and taking him 
with the army, advanced to meet Warwick. On the 14th of April, 
they encountered at Barnet, and after a contest of six hours, the 
Lancastrians were defeated. Warwick, fighting valiantly, fell with 
his brother, leaving behind him the popular name of "the King- 
maker," from the changes he had wrought in the government. 

The queen and Prince Edward, who had also arrived, were 
outnumbered, defeated, and captured by Edward, at Tewksbury ; and 
the gallant prince was brutally murdered in the tent of his rival 
by the hands of Clarence, Gloucester, and others. Three thousand 
of the Lancastrians were slain, and their leaders were executed 
after a promise of pardon. Edward reentered London; and that 
same night Henry died in his prison, probably murdered by the 
king's command. 

Freed from domestic enemies, Edward resolved to attempt the 
conquest of France; but the aid of parliament, always liberal on 
these occasions, was not sufficient, and the king, under pretext of 
soliciting charity, extorted large sums, called benevolences^ from the 
wealthy citizens. In 1475, he passed over to Calais with sixteen 
thousand troops; but, on account of the disinclination of his allies 
and nobles, the war was not carried on ; a treaty was concluded, by 
which Margaret was to be returned to France, the dauphin to marry 



ENGLAND. 



601 



ills eldest daughter, and certain sums were to be paid by Louis. The 
two kings held an interview on a bridge, with a strong grating 
between them, to prevent any treacherous attack. 

Eichard of Gloucester, the king's second brother, was anxious to 
marry Anne, the widow of Prince Edward, and thus get possession 
of the immense estates of "Warwick ; and in spite of Clarence, who, 
wishing to keep them all in his own family, concealed her, he dis- 
covered her, disguised as a cook-maid, and espoused her. Clarence, 
offended at this and other matters, withdrew from court; and some 
of his discontented expressions having reached the king in an exag- 
gerated form, he was declared guilty of treason, and privately 
executed in the tower — according to the common report, by drown- 
ing in a butt of Malmsey wine (1478). 

Edward, while meditating a fresh war with France, died on the 
6th of April, 1483, in the forty-second year of his age, and the 
twenty -third of his reign. This king, though cruel, treacherous, and 
sensual, was exceedingly popular with his subjects, on account of 
his valour, his beauty, and his agreeable manners. 

His son, Edward V., was only in his thirteenth year, and was then 
in the charge of the queen and his uncle. Earl Rivers. On his way 
to London, however, his uncle Gloucester, who had professed the 
greatest loyalty, intercepted him, seized his person, and arrested his 
half-brother, Earl Grey, and Rivers, who were with him. He was 
then taken to London, homage was rendered him, and he was 
lodged in the tower. Gloucester was named protector, and hastened 
to fill the great of&ces with his adherents. His projects were now 
obvious. Hastings, Stanley, and others, remaining firmly attached 
to the young king, Richard trumped up an accusation of sorcery 
against them, and publicly showing his arm, which was naturally 
withered, pretended that this had occurred through the witchcraft 
of the queen, Jane Shore, and Hastings. He ordered the immediate 
execution of the latter, swearing by St. Paul that he would not 
dine until he saw his head. Others of the young king's friends were 
imprisoned. On the same day, Rivers, Grey, and others were 
beheaded at Pontefract. 

Richard next seized the young duke of York (the king's brother), 
who was in sanctuary with his mother at Westminster, and conveyed 
him to his brother at the tower. These innocent children were 
overjoyed at meeting, little imagining the cruel object of their uncle. 

The protector now stood forth hypocritically as a rigid censor of 



602 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY 

morals, and compelled Jane Shore, the late king's mistress, to do 
penance in a white sheet. He followed up this step bj questioning 
the legitimacy of Edward's children, alleging, through his creatures, 
that the king's marriage had been an illegal one ; and his priest, after 
preaching in front of St. Paul's on the text "Bastard slips shall not 
strike deep roots," and dwelling on the application to Edward's heirs, 
and even insinuating the illegitimacy of Edward himself, pointed 
out the lord protector, who had just entered, and declared him the 
image of his father, the duke of York. The people remained utterly 
silent, and this device having failed, the duke of Buckingham har- 
angued them at Guildhall, and maintained that Eichard was the 
rightful heir to the crown. A few paid voices cried out "King 
Richard!" and the next day Buckingham, with the lord mayor and 
several others, repaired to the protector, and besought him to accept 
the throne. After a hypocritical pretence of reluctance, he assented, 
and next day publicly assumed the crown. 

Shortly afterwards, while making a progress through the kingdom, 
he sent orders to Sir Eichard Brackenbury, lieutenant of the tower, 
to put the two princes to death. This the latter refused, but Sir James 
Tyrrel, with two others, named Dighton and Forest being put in 
possession of the tower for one night, executed the murderous com- 
mand by smothering the sleeping children in their bed-clothes. All 
were amply rewarded by the king. 

Meanwhile, the duke of Buckingham, heretofore Eichard's staunch- 
est supporter, had formed an extensive conspiracy to dethrone him, 
and place the rightful heir upon the throne. This was somewhat 
disconcerted by information of his death ; but it was then concluded 
to offer the crown to Henry, earl of Eichmond, the head of the Lan- 
castrian party, on condition of his espousing Elizabeth, daughter of 
the late King Edward lY. 

On the 18th of October, 1483, Eichmond was proclaimed by different 
nobles throughout the country ; and Eichard issued a counter-procla- 
mation, calling his enemies "traitors, adulterers," &c., and accusing 
them of "the letting of virtue, and the damnable maintenance of 
vice." By various misadventures, however, the insurgents were 
scattered and disheartened. Buckingham was taken, and beheaded 
with others of the conspirators. 

Eichard now summoned a parliament, which obsequiously recog- 
nised his title, and settled the succession on his son, the prince of 
Wales. The heads of the late insurrection were also attainted. He 




THE DEATH OE RICHARD III , A D 1485, 



AT THE BATTLE OF BOSWOHTH. 



"The intrepid tyrant, sensible of his desperate situation, cast his eye around 
the field, and descrying his rival at no great distance, he drove against him with 
fury, in hopes that either Henry's death or his own "would decide the victory 
Detween them He killed with his own. hands Sir William Brandon, standard- 
bearer to the earl; he dismounted Sir John Cheyney ; he was now within reach 
of Richmond himself, who declined not the conabat, when Sir William Stanley, 
creaking in with his troops, surrounded Richard, who, fighting bravely to the 
last n'joment. was overwhelmed by numbers." — Hume's History oe England. 



ENGLAND. 603 

next determined to marry his son Edward to the Princess Elizabeth, 
who was looked upon by the Yorkists as the true heiress to the 
crown. This scheme was rendered void, however, by the death of 
the prince ; and, his queen falling ill, Eichard offered his own hand 
to the princess, assuring her that the gueen would die in February. 
Her death occurred on the 16th of March. The dowager of Edward^ 
was anxious that her daughter should marry the murderer of her 
brother and her sons, and the princess shared in her impatience for 
the match; but Eichard was finally deterred from marrying his niece 
by the opposition of his adherents, who represented to him the horror 
of the nation at such an unnatural and incestuous union. 

The king was now haunted, it is said, by fearful dreams, caused 
by the remembrance of his crimes. He was, moreover, out of 
money, and had alienated the citizens by his exactions. Henry took 
advantage of the popular feeling to land with his adherents. With 
six thousand men, he engaged Eichard with double the number at 
Bosworth, near Leicester. The king made a desperate charge against 
his rival, hoping to end the war by killing him ; but after a furious 
encounter, was slain, and with him three thousand of his men. The 
crown, which had fallen from his head in the battle, was placed on 
that of Henry, who was immediately and universally acknowledged 
as king. 

Eichard was only thirty-two when he thus ended his bloody 
and ambitious career. He was small in person, and slightly deformed 
in one shoulder, but not a hump-back, according to the popular 
report. His bravery and ability were undoubted; and his crimes 
have secured him an unenviable remembrance with mankind. 

"With him ended the dynasty of the Plantagenets, after having ruled 
England nearly three hundred and fifty years ; and at the same time 
terminated the War of the Eoses, which, with some intermissions, had 
lasted thirty years, and had cost the lives of a vast number of the 
nobility. 

During the period of the Plantagenets, nearly all the important 
features of the British constitution were established; parliament 
taking advantage of calls for money, and other circumstances, to 
correct grievances, and limit the royal prerogative. Their efforts 
were especially directed against feudal rights of an oppressive nature ; 
the severe forest laws; the improper jurisdiction of the king's high 
ofiicers ; and the outrageous system of Purveyance^ or the seizure of 
goods, provisions, &c., for the use of the king's household, and those 



504 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

of otlier powerful lords. The abuses of taxation, and the protection 
and pardon of criminals through, the influence of their patrons, the 
nobles, were also in some degree abrogated. 

Crime, when not permitted to escape with impunity, was usually 
punished in the most severe and barbarous manner. When a pris- 
oner refused to plead, he was subjected to the peine forte et dure, 
("strong and hard pain,") which consisted in laying him naked in a 
dungeon, and piling great weights of iron upon him till he answered 
or died. Traitors were often disembowelled alive, and other cruelties 
were in common use. 

The English church still followed that of Eome in the most 
subservient manner. Transubstantiation, purgatory, prayer to saints, 
and especially to the virgin, and the ef&cacy of pardons and indul- 
gencies, were fully received by all except the persecuted Lollards. 
The morals of the clergy were generally depraved, and they held 
more than a fifth of all the lands in the kingdom. 

The common people and most of the nobles were exceedingly 
ignorant, and what little of learning and science existed, was mostly 
in the hands of a few of the clergy. The Bible had been translated 
by "Wickliffe, but its dissemination among the people was watchfully 
prevented. 



•J Jjjj liiij iL JL JJ iLci tioo Ji i 



HENRY VII. 

The successful adventurer, proceeding to London, was welcomed 
by the authorities, and renewed his promise to espouse the Princess 
Elizabeth, The coronation was delayed by a pestilence, called the 
"Sweating Sickness," which carried off numbers of the people. On 
the 30th of October, 1485, the king was crowned, and, for the 
greater security of his person, enrolled a force of Yeomen, a corps 
which still forms the body-guard of the English sovereigns. Par- 
liament soon meeting, settled the crown explicitly on Henry and his 
heirs. Except by right of conquest, and the popular wish, his title 
was excessively weak, resting solely on his descent from an illegiti- 



ENGLAND. (JOo 

mate child of Jolin of Gaunt. He secured, however, the consent of the 
Yorkists, bj espousing Ehzabeth, the representative of that faction. 

Before long, the favour which he naturally showed toward the 
Lancastrians, displeased their former opponents; and an extraordi- 
nary impostor, named Lambert Symnell, was instructed by a designing 
priest to personate the young earl of Warwick, cousin to the queen. 
Landing in Ireland, where the cause of York was popular, he was 
almost universally acknowledged and proclaimed by the nobility and 
people. Henry, to disconcert this movement, published a full par- 
don to his late opponents, and publicly exhibited the real Warwick, 
to refute the imposture. 

Assisted by the earl of Lincoln and the duchess of Burgundy, 
the pretender was crowned at Meath, and on the 4th of June, 1487, 
landed in England, With eight thousand men, the insurgents 
engaged the royal forces, but were completely defeated, with the loss 
of their most distinguished leaders and half their number. Simons 
the priest and his pupil, the pretended king, confessed their impos- 
ture; the former died in prison, and the latter was made a turnspit 
in the royal kitchen. The defeated conspirators were, for the most 
part, punished with heavy fines or forfeitures, the king being rather 
of a rapacious than a revengeful nature. 

A truce for seven years was made with Scotland. In the year 
1488, the people in the North resisted the collection of a tax, and 
slew the earl of Northumberland, who attempted to enforce it; but 
were routed by Surrey, who was despatched against them. In 
1492, the king, under pretence of making war with France, which 
had gained possession of Brittany, induced the parliament to grant 
him a heavy subsidy, and with twenty-six thousand men landed at 
Calais, and commenced hostilities. These, however, were a mere 
pretext; for negotiations were meanwhile carried on, and a treaty of 
peace was concluded on the payment of a large sum to the king, 
who thus filled his coffers at the expense of both nations. 

Nearly at this time, a young man of about twenty arrived at 
Cork in Ireland from Portugal, and a rumour soon spread that he 
was the duke of York, and had escaped the tragedy of the tower. 
The credulous people at once acknowledged him, and he was invited 
to France, and treated by King Charles as the true heir to the Eng- 
lish crown. At the peace, he was compelled to take refuge with the 
duchess of Burgundy, who strenuously supported his pretensions. 

Both the king and the Yorkists anxiously sent over to inquire 



606 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

into ttie facts ; and thej ascertained that liis real name was Perlcin 
Warbeck, the son of a Flemish Jew, and that he had been origin- 
ally sent to Ireland by the duchess herself, to personate the character 
of the murdered prince. In 1494, the king, discovering the names 
of those noblemen who had supported the pretender, took the oppor- 
tunity to execute several of them. Sir William Stanley, the lord 
chamberlain, who had saved the king's life at Bosworth, was also 
beheaded on an almost totally unfounded charge of treason ; the 
desire to obtain his large possessions being, it was supposed, the 
chief motive of his avaricious and ungrateful master. 

In 1496, Warbeck landed with a few adherents, who were easily 
dispersed and taken. An hundred and fifty of them were hanged. 
Eetreating to Scotland, he was received honourably by King James, 
who, in 1497, invaded England with an army in his behalf. The 
people, however, refused to regard the proclamation of Warbeck. 
The raising of taxes to meet the expenses of resistance occasioned 
a rebellion, which was, however, suppressed by the king's generals, 
and great numbers of the insurgents were slain. 

After another Scottish invasion, followed by a truce, the pretender 
raised his standard at Cornwall, and assembled six thousand men. 
Being deserted by their leader, they surrendered, and were mostly 
pardoned. Warbeck, who had taken sanctuary, was carried to Lon- 
don, and on examination, confessed his impostures. After six 
months, attempting to escape, he was set in the stocks, compelled to 
read his confession in public, and then committed to the tower 
(1498). Here he formed an intimacy with the unfortunate young 
earl of Warwick, who was kept close prisoner simply on account of 
his royal descent, and who, from long confinement, was exceedingly 
simple and ignorant. The latter consented to a plan for escape, which 
being detected, Perkin was executed. Warwick was then arraigned 
before the peers on a charge of sharing in the seditious plans of 
Warbeck, and was beheaded on the 28th of November. 

Thus perished the last of the Plantagenets ; and there is little 
reason to doubt that the cold-blooded and remorseless monarch con- 
trived the whole plot as a means of getting rid of one whose rank 
might make him a formidable rival. The immediate motive 
probably was to bring about a marriage between his son Arthur 
and the infanta Catharine of Spain ; whose father. Ferdinand, had 
declared his distrust of Henry's children inheriting securely "as 
long as the earl of Warwick lived." 



ENGLAND. 



607 



Hostilities with. Scotland, whicli, witli brief intermissions, liad 
continued so many years, were, in 1503, ended for the present by a 
marriage between the king of that country and the Princess Mar- 
garet. Their descendants afterwards sat upon the united throne of 
both kingdoms. The marriage of Arthur with the infanta was cele- 
brated in his fifteenth year, but his speedy death disappointing the 
king's hopes, it was arranged that Henry, his second son, should 
marry her, and a dispensation for that purpose was obtained from 
the Pope. 

As he grew older, the king's avarice increased, and by means of 
Empson and Dudley, his able and unscrupulous lawyers, he gained 
large sums in a most oppressive manner. The earl of Oxford, one 
of his most active supporters, was fined ten thousand pounds for 
having summoned his retainers to do honour to the king, thus 
infringing a certain statute. Henry had for some time been troubled 
with the gout ; and was finally carried off by an attack of that com- 
plaint on the 22d of April, 1509, in the fifty-third year of his age 
and the twenty-fourth of his reign. 

He was a man of great political talents, and rather of a cold- 
blooded than of a cruel disposition. He was not vindictive toward 
his enemies, thougb he would shed blood without remorse to gratify 
his ambition or avarice. He left the world laden with the curses of 
his people, whom he had oppressed and despoiled. 

Some important statutes were passed during his reign, enabling 
lands to be more easily alienated, and forbidding the punishment of 
treason to be applied to those who served a king actually on the 
throne. The oppressive court, afterwards called the Star Chamber, 
was also constituted. 

During this reign, the New World was discovered by Columbus, 
and Henry, desirous to share in these tempting acquisitions, sent 
out Sebastian Cabot, a Yenetian, who, in 1497, discovered the coast 
of North America, from Labrador to Florida. 



608 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. 



kJ (JbcL i/>iJu Jj iL clj JiO t^ Ji Ji Ji I 



HENET VIII. 

The young king, at the age of eighteen, ascended the throne with 
every advantage. Universally acknowledged as the rightful heir, 
and inheriting large treasures accumulated by the avarice of his 
predecessor, his reign commenced most auspiciously. He married 
Catharine, retained his father's ministers, and for two years amused 
the court and people by scenes of martial splendour and gallantry. 
The execution of Empson and Dudley, which he ordered in com- 
pliance with the importunities of the people, was the only event of 
public importance until 1512, when England began to take a part 
in the affairs of the Continent. 

By an alliance with Ferdinand of Spain, a fleet and army were 
despatched to recover Guienne for England and Navarre for Spain. 
The latter object was accomplished, but the design of Henry failed, 
owing to the mutinous disposition of the troops. Various naval 
engagements with the French fleet followed, but resulted in nothing 
of importance. In 1513, the king, with twenty-five thousand men, 
sailed for France, having first ordered the execution of the earl of 
Suffolk, who lay in the tower, and who, being accused of conspir- 
acy, had surrendered himself to the late king, on a,n assurance that 
his life should be spared. Assisted by the Emperor Maximilian, 
the English took Tournay and Terouenne, and made prisoners the 
Chevalier Bayard and other persons of eminence. Henry then 
returned to the island, where the Scots were assuming a hostile 
attitude. 

James, his brother-in-law, having been dishonourably used by 
Henry in some matters of no great importance, was prevailed on by 
the French court to take up arms. He despatched a fleet to the aid 
of Louis, and with a numerous army marched into the north of 
England, taking many strongholds. The earl of Surrey, with 
twenty-five thousand men, proceeded against him, and the two 
armies encountered on Flodden, one of the Cheviot hills. The 
battle, which only lasted for an hour, was fought most fiercely, and 
resulted in the utter discomfiture of the Scots, with a loss of ten 




HENKY VIII 



ENGLAND. gQ9 

thousand men. King James and his most valiant nobles died fight- 
ins: hand to hand in the front of the battle. 

The hostilities with France were ended by the defection of 
Henry's allies, and a peace was agreed on, ratified by the marriage 
of Louis to Mary, the king's sister, sixteen years of age. Louis, 
who was more than thrice her age, died on the 1st of June, 1515, 
and she became a widow after three months of marriage. The cele- 
brated Francis L succeeded to the throne. 

The most powerful and influential subject in the kingdom was 
Cardinal Wolsey, who, for fifteen years, controlled the king, and 
through him the nation, in an almost absolute manner. He was 
the son of a butcher, and had been the chaplain of Henry VIL, by 
whom he was made a dean. On the accession of the young king, 
he became the royal almoner, and by his gayety and companionship 
in the royal amusements, as well as by his talents for business, com- 
pletely won his affection and confidence. He became, in rapid 
succession, bishop, archbishop, cardinal, chancellor, and papal legate. 
He also aspired, not without reason, to the pontificate itself 

His revenue, arising from his many offices and preferments, was 
enormous ; he lived in the most princely magnificence, and bestowed 
a liberal and enlightened patronage on literature and men of learn- 
mg. Both in the administration and improvement of justice, he 
showed himself eminently upright and capable. 

On the death of the Emperor Maximilian, in 1519, the kings of 
France and Spain contended for the vacant dignity; and Charles 
having received the vote of the electors, Francis, desirous of gain- 
ing the powerful support of the English monarch, sought a personal 
interview with him. They met near Calais, on the English terri- 
tory, and, in the midst of tournaments and splendid displaj^s, entered 
into a treaty of mutual alliance. Such was the wealth and magnifi- 
cence displayed by the two courts on this occasion, that the place 
of their meeting was styled "The Field of the Cloth of Gold." 
Their attendants, vying with each other in display, incurred ruinous 
debts and expenses. The two kings lived upon the most intimate 
terms, even acting to each other as valets at the toilet. 

This memorable meeting, however, did not advance the interests 
of Francis; for Charles of Spain, his rival, was nephew to Queen 
Katharine, and had gained the influence of Wolsey by important 
gifts and an assurance of support in his designs on the papacy. 

In the following year, 1521, the duke of Buckingham, one of the 
39 



QIQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

first nobles in the kingdom, was arrested and executed upon a very 
doubtful charge of treason. The king's jealousy and Wolsey's 
ambition were probably the cause of this vindictive act. 

The war between Charles and Francis had been renewed ; but 
both parties accepted the mediation of England. Wolsey, to whom 
the affair was intrusted, effected (probably by previous arrangement 
with Henry) an alliance between the emperor, the Pope, and the 
king of England; and it was agreed to invade France simultane- 
ously. The earl of Surrey, with sixteen thousand troops, passed 
over in 1522, but effected nothing of importance. Albany, the 
Scottish regent, at the instigation of Francis, assembled a large 
army for the invasion of England; but after some hostilities, left 
the kingdom. The earl of Angus took the regency, under Henry's 
protection, and peace prevailed between the nations for eighteen years. 

By the intrigues of the emperor, Wolsey had now been twice dis- 
appointed of his election to the papacy ; and he concluded a fresh 
treaty of alliance with France. By this time, the various kingdoms 
of Europe, after passing through many transitions, had assumed 
something of their present limits and forms of government. Great 
events were in their commencement. The wonderful revolution in 
the church had begun on the Continent. The press, for more than 
half a century, had been gradually disseminating light and knowl- 
edge, and its first important effects were seen in the great contest 
which took place between the new and the ancient theolog3^ 

The building of St. Peter's had, in a great measure, drained the 
papal treasury ; and to repair the loss in some degree, the practice 
of selling indulgences was carried on by the agents of the church, 
in a very extensive manner. In Germany, the principal itinerant 
was Tetzel, a Dominican friar, who, with his assistants, disposed of 
great numbers, promising the purchasers that "the gates of hell 
should be closed, and those of Paradise open to them." At last he 
came in the neighbourhood of Wittemburg, where Dr. Martin 
Luther, the professor of theology, an Augustinian monk, had been 
for several years engaged in extricating himself from the trammels 
of the Eomish superstitions. 

His penitents exhibited Tetzel's indulgences, desiring absolution, 
which he refused, denouncing their authority. Tetzel, who was an 
inquisitor, then proclaimed him a heretic. Luther in return began to 
preach openly against the indulgences; and his celebrated warfare 
with the papal church commenced. In England, where Wickliffe's 



ENGLAND. QH 

opinions were still secretly cherished by many, his books were 
widely circulated. The church, by great severity and persecution, 
endeavoured to check the new doctrines; and Henry himself, with 
some assistance, produced in 1521 a respectable "Defence of the 
Seven Sacraments." The Pope, in gratitude, bestowed on him the 
title of "Defender of the Faith," a title which the British sovereigns 
arrogate to themselves to this day. Luther, who had been greatly 
vituperated in this performance, answered by another, applying 
terms equally coarse to Henry, whom he styled, among other choice 
epithets, "a hog of hell." The royal partisans responded with 
others, in which the lowest depths of scurrility and obscenity 
were reached. 

This situation of religious affairs was, however, entirely changed 
by the personal feelings and interests of the king. The queen had 
borne him five children, of whom only one, the Princess Mary, sur- 
vived. Her melancholy and peevishness alienated his affections, 
and he was anxiously desirous of a male heir. A sudden and very 
opportune scruple of conscience came to his aid. Katharine had 
been married to his brother, who died when a youth, and though a 
dispensation had been obtained from the Pope, he professed a con 
scientious doubt of its authority. Wolsey encouraged the new idea, 
and a divorce was resolved on. A French connection was planned; 
but the king had become smitten with the charms of Anne Boleyn, 
one of the queen's attendants — beautiful, witty, and amiable. She 
refused to surrender her virtue to the king, but consented to accept 
his hand, in the event of a divorce being obtained. 

The bishops all signed an instrument questioning the validity of 
the king's marriage, and he made application to the Pope for a 
divorce. After much delay, a commission was issued to Wolsey 
and Cardinal Campeggio, to try the case in England. The queen's 
resolute and noble demeanour before this tribunal affected every 
one; she finally refused to attend the court, and Henry expected a 
decision in accordance with his wishes. But the Pope, influenced 
by the Emperor Charles Y. (the queen's nephew), contrived, under 
various frivolous pretexts, to protract the matter for more than two 
years. Henry was wearied out, and Wolsey, to whom he attributed 
these delays, lost his favour altogether. 

In this strait, the king happened to hear (very likely by previous 
arrangement) that Dr. Thomas Cranmer, a theological lecturer at Cam- 
bridge, had expressed an opinion that the matter should be decided 



Q12 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

bjtLe universities and learned canonists. He eagerly swore "this 
man liath the sow by the right ear," and remarked upon the money 
and quiet which he had lost from not knowing the device sooner. 
Cranrner was instantly sent for, and the case put into his hands. 

The fall of Wolsey, who had been unable or unwilling to effect 
his master's purpose, ensued. The great seal was taken from him, 
and he was compelled to yield his immense personal property to the 
king. Parliament was summoned ; and on a long list of very vague 
charges, he was outlawed. Having thus humbled his former favour- 
ite, the king pardoned him, and allowed him to retain a portion of 
his property. Soon after, in November, 1530, while travelling, he 
was taken very ill, and came to the convent at Leicester, where the 
abbot received him with great respect. "Father Abbot," said the 
fallen man, "I am come to leave my bones among you." He soon 
died, saying, in his last moments, " Had 1 but served God as diligently 
as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my 
gray hairs." 

The Pope still proving impracticable, application was made to the 
universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and, with great difficulty, 
Henry obtained an opinion that the marriage was illegal. Many 
agents were also employed to obtain the decisions of foreign univer- 
sities, and, in spite of the opposition of the Pope and emperor, these 
were generally favourable to the king. They were then transmitted 
to Eome, with a hint that the matter might yet be decided in Eng- 
land; but his Holiness, urged by Henry on one side, and Charles on 
the other, would not compromise himself by a decision. 

Cromwell, a talented and ambitious man, who had been in the 
service of Wolsey, and afterwards of the king, now advised Henry 
to take a bold step, and assume to himself the supremacy over the 
church and clergy of England. The king assented. Under pretext 
that the clergy had incurred outlawry by obeying ."Wolsey, they were 
compelled to present the king with a large sum of money, (one hun- 
dred thousand pounds,) and to acknowledge him their supreme head 
"as far as the laws of Christ would allow." This blow was followed 
in 1532 by an act of parliament, reducing the revenues of Eome, 
and providing for the consecration of bishops by the king, in case 
of refusal by the Pope. Meanwhile, persecution continued to rage, 
and several unfortunate persons were burned for having denied "the 
real presence " of the body of Christ in the consecrated wafer. 

Henry now lost all patience, and banished Katharine, who still 



ENGLAND. Ql^ 

maintained her pretensions, from Windsor. He tlien appointed 
Cranmer archbishop of Canterbury, and in 1533 privately married 
Anne Boleyn. She soon appeared in public as queen, and Cranmer 
and others, after trying the case over again, pronounced the king's 
first marriage null and void. Anne was shortly after crowned by 
the primate, and gave birth to the Princess Elizabeth, who was 
declared heiress to the throne. 

The parliament of 1534 completely fulfilled the wishes of Henry, 
checking the power of Eome, settling the succession on the children 
of Anne, and making it high treason to do any act in derogation of 
the marriage or succession. The bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas 
More, the late chancellor, declining to swear to the nullity of the 
former marriage, were committed to the tower. 

The king's supremacy was now generally acknowledged, and 
though the clergy were deeply dissatisfied, any resistance was over- 
awed by the fate of eleven monks, some of them priors, who were 
executed at Tyburn for denying it. Fourteen Dutch Anabaptists, 
who had taken refuge in England, also suffered at the stake. The 
execution of the bishop of Rochester and Sir Thomas More, both 
men of the highest character, soon followed ; both died with great 
magnanimity, and the latter uttered several modest pleasantries on 
the scaffold. These judicial murders raised a general outcry; and 
the tyrant's name was execrated throughout the Catholic world. 

He next resolved on the suppression of the convents, and the 
sequestration of their revenues ; a measure arbitrary and despotical, 
indeed, but productive of some good effects in releasing many vic- 
tims, who, by the avarice or superstition of their parents, had been 
immured in these secluded and unnatural abodes. The property 
confiscated at this time was very considerable. 

In 1536, Katharine died, and Anne, who had thought this event 
favourable to her security, soon discovered her mistake. Henry 
had become fascinated by the charms of Jane Seymour, one of her 
attendants, and being disappointed in his hopes of a son, sought 
an opportunity to get rid of his queen. Some slight tokens of 
levity being reported to him, he ordered her arrest, and preferred 
against her a charge of adultery. Four gentlemen, one of them her 
brother, were arrested as the participants of her crime. She wrote 
a most dignified and eloquent epistle to the king, avowing her inno- 
cence; the charges were excessively improbable, and the proof 
amounted to almost nothing : yet the accused parties were all con- 



Q14, THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

victed of treason, and siiifered accordingly, no one daring to dispute 
the tyrant's will. The queen was beheaded, evincing great courage 
and magnanimity to the last. Being informed that the pain would 
be trifling, she replied, "I have but a little neck," and put her hand 
about it, smiling. 

The day after this atrocious miirder, Henry married the object of 
his passion, as if willing to exhibit his motives without shame or 
compunction. The people of Lincolnshire, discontented at the sup- 
pression of the monasteries, assembled in arms, to the number of 
twenty thousand; but finally dispersed upon proclamation. A 
more formidable insurrection broke out in the North, where the 
malcontents marched through the country in great force, performing 
a sort of martial pilgrimage, and took the cities of York and Hull. 
Forty thousand in number, they advanced to Doncaster; but a 
heavy rain and an act of amnesty dispersed them. 

In 1537, they again took up arms; eight thousand, headed by 
two gentlemen of Cumberland, attempted to seize Carlisle, but were 
defeated with great slaughter, and several of their leaders, with 
seventy others, were hanged on the walls. Other similar under- 
takings were also su,ppressed, and a number of nobles, gentry, and 
clergy, implicated in them, were executed. An amnesty was after- 
wards issued. 

On the 12th of October, the queen gave birth to a son (Prince 
Edward), and died soon afterwards, thus probably escaping the fate 
which might, at no distant day, have been her's, by the king's caprice. 
An English translation of the Bible was this year introduced into 
the kingdom, by the royal sanction. The remaining monasteries 
were next suppressed, with little opposition, the loss of the monks 
being partially compensated; and a revenue of an hundred and 
thirty thousand pounds was thus added to the royal treasury. A 
vast number of pretended relics and juggling impostures were at 
the same time exposed to the popular examination ; and St. Thomas 
of Canterbury (Becket) was condemned as a traitor, and his bones 
were taken up and burned. Most of the lands sequestered were 
divided among the favourite nobles and gentry ; whose rapacity and 
greediness, w^ith the shameless prodigality of the king, absorbed the 
spoils of the clergy so far, that in 1510, the next year, he was obliged 
to require a large subsidy from parliament to meet the expenses of 
this most lucrative reformation. 

In spite of the errors and superstitions which clung around these 



ENGLAND. 615 

strongliolds of the ancient religion, every one must lament the 
destruction of the noble edifices and the valuable libraries which fell 
into the hands of the unprincipled favourites. History and litera- 
ture in general sustained irreparable losses. The most unbounded 
indignation was excited at Konie, and a terrible bull was issued, 
laying the kingdom under an interdict, excommunicating Henry, 
declaring his later offspring illegitimate, and ordering the nobility 
to take up arms against the king. But the time had passed when 
a government could be overthrown by such means. Men's minds, 
if not more enlightened, had become more independent, and the 
only effect of this fulmination from the Yatican, was to exasperate 
the king to further violence. 

Reginald de la Pole, a second cousin of the king, had been one 
of the most active of the papal agents; and had endeavoured, in 
vain, to excite the neighbouring nations to avenge, by a warlike 
crusade, the injuries suffered by the church. Unable to get this 
formidable foe into his power, the king seized his brother. Lord 
Montague, and several other persons of distinction, who were exe- 
cuted on a charge of abetting his designs. 

Henry, though setting the church of Rome at defiance, suppported 
its most absurd doctrines by persecution. He argued with one 
Lambert in support of the "real presence;" and being unable to 
convince the unhappy man, burned him at Smithfield, in company 
with two Anabaptists. It was the good or evil fortune of the king 
to find the most slavish and subservient of parliaments always at 
his command. An act attainting Pole's relations, and other distin- 
guished persons without trial, was passed; and another, creating 
an absolute despotism, followed, giving to the king's proclamation 
all the authority of a statute of parliament. 

After a vehement debate upon matters of religion, each party 
prepared a bill of faith ; and that of the ancient belief, in six 
articles, called " the bloody statute, " received the king's approbation. 
By this, the doctrines of transubstantiation, celibacy of the clergy, 
confession, and other matters, were made authoritative; to oppose 
the first was punishable by death, and to violate the others was 
made felony. Numbers of the reforming clergy were immediately 
cast into prison. Cranmer, supported by the king's personal friend- 
ship, was untouched; but found it necessary to send his wife and 
children to Grermany. Henry had all this time been busily engaged in 
treaties for a fresh marriage; and being somewhat corpulent in person, 



QIQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

was anxious that his wife should be of correspondingly large dimen- 
sions. Among other propositions, one was rejected which he made 
to Francis I., that they should meet at Calais, and the Frenchman 
should bring the finest ladies of his court. He next saw a picture 
of Anne, daughter of the duke of Cleves, made proposals, and was 
readily accepted. On beholding the bride, however, he was griev- 
ously disappointed, and swore that "they had brought him a great 
Flanders mare." Unwilling to offend the continental prince, how- 
ever, he married her, but determined to repudiate her as soon as 
possible, and to ruin Cromwell, the high chamberlain, who had 
brought about the match. 

At a dinner he beheld Catharine Howard, niece of the duke of 
Norfolk, and was immediately captivated by her charms. Cromwell 
was forthwith attainted by the parliament, according to his own 
device, upon a frivolous charge of treason and heresy. The parlia- 
ment and clergy, subservient as usual, pronounced the king's 
marriage void, on the ground that Anne had been previously afS.- 
anced to another; and it was made high treason to question this 
decision. The execution of Cromwell followed immediately, and 
fresh victims were soon offered to the shrines of bigotry' — three for 
denying the supremacy, and three for preaching "justification by 
faith." In April, 1541, an insurrection had broken out in the north, 
but it was suppressed, and the leaders were executed. The revenge- 
ful monarch seized this occasion to execute the countess of Salisbury, 
Pole's mother, a lady of seventy -two, who had for some time been 
imprisoned. 

A few days after the death of Cromwell, the new queen had been 
publicly introduced at court, and, according to the lords of the coun- 
cil, had completely won the king's heart by "a notable appearance 
of honour, cleanness, and maidenly behaviour." The king, the 
following season, gave public thanks to Heaven, for the happiness 
of his married life ; and on the next day received a written state- 
ment of the queen's incontinence, both before and after marriage. 
Henry at first could not believe it, but upon receiving undeniable 
proof, burst into tears. The parliament met, and bills of attainder 
were passed against the queen and other persons implicated. She 
was beheaded on the 13th of February, 1542. On the 12th of July, 
m the following year, he married Catharine Parr, the widow of Lord 
Latimer, a lady secretly inclined to the reformed doctrines. 

The year before, some acts of hostility with Scotland had occurred, 



ENGLAND. 6^7 

and tlie king of France having opposed tlie English interests, Henry 
was induced by the emperor to unite in a league against him. In 
July, 1544, he crossed the sea with his principal nobility and an 
army of'thirty thousand men. At an early period, however, his ally 
made peace with the enemy, and the king returned to England, hav- 
ing taken and garrisoned the town of Boulogne. The war with France 
and Scotland was still feebly protracted until it was terminated by a 
peace in 1546. 

Cranmer had succeeded in obtaining a mitigation of the provisions 
for the enforcement of the six articles, and in 1543, his enemies 
made a strong attempt to crush him, representing to the king that 
the primate and his adherents were filling the realm with heresy, 
and praying for his committal to the tower. Henry consented that 
he should be at the disposal of the council, but privately gave him 
a ring, assuring him of protection. The archbishop, finding himself 
severely and unjustly dealt with, produced the token, and, with his 
accusers, went before the king. The latter declared his confidence 
in Cranmer, and a hollow reconciliation was effected by his authority. 

The parliament of 1545 granted large subsidies to the king, and 
even empowered him to seize the revenues of the hospitals, univer- 
sities, and public institutions, on condition that "all shall be done to 
the glory of God and the common profit of the realm." In the 
following year, Anne Askew, a lady who had adopted the reformed 
opinions, was cruelly tortured, and, with three others, was burned for 
denying the "real presence." 

Gardiner, the persecuting bishop of Winchester, even attempted 
to make a victim of the queen. By Henry's consent, articles of 
accusation were drawn up against her, and received his approbation ; 
but Catharine, accidentally learning the scheme, so artfully flattered 
the tyrant's vanity and love of argument, that he became completely 
reconciled to her. The next day, when the chancellor, with forty 
men, appeared in the royal garden to arrest her, Henry called him 
a "knave, fool, and beast," and ordered him away. Gardiner was 
also disgraced. 

The king, afflicted with corpulence and disease, was near his end; 
but contrived to load his memory with one more weight by the 
execution of the accomplished earl of Surrey, on a most frivolous 
and unfounded charge of treason. On the 27th of January, 1547, 
he died very tranquilly, expressing his reliance on the Saviour, 
and affording another proof that a comfortable death-bed is not the 



QIQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

unfailing evidence either of a virtuous life, or of correct religious 
opinions. In despite of his u.tter selfishness, caprice, and tyranny, 
he was one of the most personally popular monarchs'who ever sat 
upon the English throne. His physical strength and martial appear- 
ance, with a certain bluff good-humour, captivated the hearts of the 
people. His abilities, though grievously misused, were unquestion- 
able. He excelled in literature, and had the faculty of discerning 
merit and ability in those whom he employed. 



uiiiAirJliliXiAivo 

EDWARD VI., AND MARY. 

The young king being only in his tenth year, a council, appointed 
by the will of Henry, assumed the government. Their first act was 
to create one of their number, the duke of Somerset, protector of 
the realm, and to bestow fresh titles and estates upon themselves. The 
duke first exerted his authority to crush the chancellor by a charge 
of malfeasance in his ofiice, and to gain from his successor a con- 
firmation to himself of full regal power. He appointed a council, 
though its authority was merely nominal. 

The Protestants now looked forward to more favourable times. 
Both the young king and the primate were in favoiir of their prin- 
ciples, and the council was under the reformed influence. Various 
superstitious usages were suppressed by law, and the New Testament 
was generally introduced. Gardiner, who resisted these innovations, 
was committed to prison. 

Early in the autumn, Somerset, with twenty thousand men, 
invaded Scotland; the principal object being to compel a union 
(proposed by Henry) between Edward and Mary, the youthful occu- 
pants of the respective thrones. Arran, the regent, assembling an 
army of double the English force, opposed him; and after vainly 
negotiating concerning the disputed matter, battle was joined at 
Pinkey, on the coast. The Scots, exposed to the English archery, 
and to a fire from the fleet which accompanied the army, were 



ENGLAND. gX9 

defeated with a loss of ten thousand men ; but no advantage resuhed 
to the English from tlieir victory. The protector was recalled to 
London by domestic intrigues, and the young queen was sent to 
France, and betrothed to the dauphin. 

The parliament of 1548 repealed the odious statute making the 
royal proclamation the law of the land. The severe laws and arbi- 
trary definitions of treason were abolished, and the statutes against 
Lollardy and for the enforcement of the "Six Articles" were dis- 
continued. These improvements, however, do not indicate an 
advanced liberality in matters of opinion, but only that some of the 
more influential classes had begun to lean to the new doctrines. 
Heresy, it was still held, should be punishable by law, and the 
odious statute "cfe hceretico comhurendoj" for burning of heretics, 
was still retained. 

During the year, a new liturgy, the basis of that now used by the 
church of England, was compiled by Cranmer and others, and was 
ordered to be used in all the churches. An act, permitting marriage to 
the clergy, was also passed. The protector's brother. Lord Seymour, 
the_ high-admiral, an ambitious man, had married Henry's widow; 
and on her death, paid much attention to the yoimg Princess Eliza- 
beth. He, moreover, engaged the affections of the young king, by sup- 
plying him with money ; other suspicious manoeuvres were observed ; 
and the government, in alarm, had him condemned by attainder, 
without any opportunity for defence. He was executed three days 
after, Somerset and Cranmer signing the warrant with the others. 

Persecutions, under the reformed system, still continued. Cran- 
mer and others, by commission, tried a woman named Joan Boucher, 
and condemned her to the flames for maintaining that Christ was 
not incarnate of the virgin. The youthful king evinced the greatest 
reluctance to signing the horrible warrant; and all the authority of 
Cranmer was necessary to induce him. The next year, a man 
named Parr, suffered the same fate for being an Arian. 

The first effect of the suppression of the monasteries was, except 
to the receivers of the spoil, unsatisfactory. The people, oppressed 
by their new and absent landlords, thought with regret of the leni- 
ency and personal kindness of their old masters the friars. They 
were further distressed by the high prices caused by the influx of 
the precious metals from the New World; wages not having risen 
correspondingly. Viewing all these evils as originating with the 
Reformed doctrines, they rose in several of the counties, where they 



Q20 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

were at first quieted bj tlie efibrts of the resident gentry; but by 
degrees the insurrections became more formidable. In Devon, the 
insurgents, numbering ten thousand men, demanded the restoration 
in full of the ancient forms which had been suppressed ; that many 
disused customs should be enforced, and that heretics should be 
strictly punished. While laying siege to Exeter, they were routed 
and dispersed by Lord Eussell ; several of their leaders were exe- 
cuted; and the vicar of St. Thomas was hanged in his robes from 
his own steeple. In Norfolk, one Kett, a tanner, with twenty thou- 
sand peasants under his command, sat beneath an oak, called the 
Oak of Eeformation, summoned the gentry to appear before him, 
and made what decrees he pleased. After routing the marquis of 
Northampton, who had been sent against them, the rebels were 
defeated by Warwick, with a loss of two thousand of their num- 
ber. Kett was hanged at Norwich, and nine others were suspended 
from the boughs of their favourite tree. 

The protector had now become exceedingly unpopular; and he 
added to the public hatred by pulling down certain churches and 
bishops' houses in the city, to build himself a palace in their room. 
His principal enemy was Dudley, earl of Warwick, a son of the 
beheaded agent of Henry YII. In 1549, this nobleman, with eight 
others of the council, assumed the entire power, and appealed to all 
classes for assistance. Somerset, being generally deserted, was. com- 
pelled to yield to the storm, and was committed to the tower. He 
was accused of being the author of all the misfortunes which had 
happened to the realm, and confessed his guilt. Certain penalties 
were adjudged, but his opponents, not wishing to ruin him entirely, 
liberated and pardoned him. A marriage of his daughter to War- 
wick's eldest son united the rivals, and he was allowed a seat in the 
council. The successful faction, as usual, rewarded themselves with 
titles and estates. 

On the 24th of March, 1550, a peace was made with France and 
Scotland; Boulogne being restored to the former on payment of 
four hundred thousand crowns. 

The Eeformation was still pushed on. Bishop Bonner, a staunch 
supporter of Eome, was deprived of his see, and imprisoned. Gar- 
diner, who had been two years in the tower, was also degraded 
from his office. The Princess Mary, who still heard mass, was men- 
aced in her turn ; but declared herself ready to die in support of 
her faith, and assured the council that she never would read any of 



ENGLAND. 621 

their books, as slie thanked God she never had. Through fear of 
the emperor, her cousin, who threatened war, she was no farther 
molested. The Book of Common Prayer was next revised ; and 
forty-two articles of religion were drawn up. 

Warwick pursued his career of ambition, and on the death of the 
earl of Northumberland, got possession of his title and a great part 
of his estates. Somerset, whom he still dreaded, was again arrested 
on the charge of having conspired his death, and that of other 
leading persons. He was tried before the peers, acquitted of trea- 
son, but found guilty, on tolerable evidence, of felony. He was 
executed on the 22d of January, 1552, amid the lamentations of the 
people, with whom he had formerly been popular, and his care for 
whose interests, on various occasions, formed the redeeming portion 
of his character. Several of his friends were executed, and others 
were fined and imprisoned. Bishop Tunstall, an ardent Eomanist, 
was also deprived of his see. 

The king's health, always delicate, had become more precarious 
of late, and Northumberland dreaded the succession of Mary, a 
zealous adherent of Eomanism. She and Elizabeth had been made 
dlegitimate by act of parliament during the late reign; the next 
in order, overlooking the heirs excluded by the king's will, was the 
duchess of Suffolk, who was desirous to transfer her claim to her 
daughter, the Lady Jane Grey, a confirmed Protestant. Northum- 
berland represented these matters to the young king, himself a 
strong Protestant, and pointed out the dangers which the reformed 
faith must encounter, if Mary succeeded him according to the will 
of her father. Edward readily entered into his views, and ordered 
the chief judges to draw up an instrument bequeathing the crown 
accordingly. With much reluctance, they complied, and the new 
devise, after great debate, was signed by all the judges and privy 
counseUors except one. The earl had no small stake in the artful 
and ambitious game which he was playing; for at this time, the 
Lady Jane Grey was married to his fourth son. Lord Guildford Dudley ; 
and the throne, as he supposed, was thus secured in his own family. 

The king survived this transaction only a short time. He died 
on the 6th of July, 1553, praying for the promotion of true religion, 
and that papistry might be averted from the realm. During his 
brief and youthful reign, he exhibited many amiable and estimable 
qualities, though his character was somewhat tinged with intolerance. 

Northumberland had designed to get possession of Mary's person; 



522 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

but was disappointed by ber precipitate flight. The Lady Jane, 
whom her ambitious relatives were attempting to place in this high 
and perilous position, was only sixteen years of age, but was 
endowed with high talents, virtuous feelings, and an amiable dispo- 
sition. ' She was also unusually learned and accomplished. When 
(four days after the king's death) the news was communicated to 
her, and the principal persons of the council requested her to assume 
the crown, she fell senseless to the ground, and on recovering, wept 
bitterly. She was told that she was the rightful heir, and accepted 
the crown — without question most reluctantly — and from a sense 
of duty. 

The partisans of Northumberland, and the reformed clergy in 
general, exerted themselves strongly to secure the throne to its new 
occupant; but the disinterested subjects listened with apathy to the 
proclamation, and to the sermons preached in favour of the change. 
In JSTorfolk, the people, hating Northumberland for his severities, 
espoused the cause of Mary, and proclaimed her as queen. Several 
of the nobility joined her, and four thousand men, under Sir Edward 
Hastings, deserted the cause of Northumberland, and came to her 
assistance. A fleet sent to intercept her, if she should attempt an 
escape, took a similar course, Northumberland, with ten thousand 
men, advanced against her, but finding himself vastly outnumbered, 
retreated to Cambridge. 

Meanwhile, in London, the civil authorities and several of the high 
officers of government, perceiving how matters were tending, pro- 
claimed Mary, amid the acclamations of the populace. The Lady 
Jane, after a reign of ten days, made a formal resignation of her 
brief authority, declaring how much pleasanter it was than the 
acceptance. Northumberland was speedily arrested and committed 
to the tower ; and the accession of Mary to the throne was univer- 
sally acknowledged. Entering London in triumph, she released 
Bonner and Tunstall, and made Gardiner high-chancellor. North- 
umberland and a number of his associates were convicted of high 
treason, but the only executions at this time were those of himself 
and two others. Jane and her husband were kept in confinement, 
and the other prisoners were set at liberty. 

The queen had averred that she would not interfere with the 
religion of the people ; but the hope of toleration soon proved vain 
and futile. Bishops Ridley and Hooper were committed to prison, 
and the Princess Elizabeth found it necessary for her safety to attend 



ENGLAND. 623 

mass. The primate, Cranmer, on the first indication of his disap- 
proval, was committed to the tower on a charge of treason, Latimer, 
on a similar charge, was already there. Most of the leading Protest- 
ants were soon in prison; the people of Suffolk, reminding the 
queen of her promises, met with insult, and one of their messengers, 
named Dobbe, was set in the pillory. Pole was at once appointed 
by the Pope as papal legate to England; and the queen despatched 
a private letter to the pontiff, promising to bring the kingdom again 
into obedience to the See of Eome. 

The parliament, which speedily met, was composed of a large 
majority of Romanists; a Latin mass, in open defiance of the exist- 
ing law, was performed, and Bishop Taylor, refusing to kneel, was 
forcibly put out of the house. Acts, fortifying the queen's legiti- 
macy, and annulling all statutes of the late reign concerning religion, 
were passed. Jane, her husband, his brother, and Cranmer, were 
attainted of treason, and all pleaded guilty, as the best way of appeas- 
ing the hatred of their prosecutors. The commons also prayed her 
majesty to select a husband from among the nobility of the realm, 
hoping to prevent her contemplated marriage with Philip of Spain, 
the emperor's son.; but she told them it was for her, not them, to 
choose in this matter. Her resolution being fixed, Gardiner, the 
chancellor, in settling the articles of marriage with the imperial 
commissioners, took every precaution for the honour and security 
of his country ; and Philip, as the queen's husband, was to be allowed 
only the shadow of authority. The match was, nevertheless, exceed- 
ingly odious to the people in general; and conspiracies were soon 
renewed against the government. The most serious was in Kent, 
where Sir Thomas Wyatt, a man of great ability and courage, 
headed a revolt, and increased his forces to fifteen thousand men. 

London, however, proved loyal, and the insurgent leader, attempt- 
ing, with a greatly diminished force, to surprise it, was defeated and 
taken prisoner. The next day the queen issued a warrant for the 
execution of her youthful and innocent prisoner, the Lady Jane, and 
for that of her husband. He was beheaded on tower-hill, in the 
presence of a vast multitude ; and Jane, after witnessing the return 
of his lifeless body, was led forth to execution, within the tower. 
She died with great courage and tranquillity, admitting that she 
had committed an unlawful act, but declaring her innocence of hav- 
ing desired the crown. Thus perished, at the mandate of an alarmed 
and jealous woman, one of the most admirable and amiable persons 



g24 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

to be met in English history. Her father and uncle, who had been 
engaged in a conspiracy, were shortly after executed. One of the 
accused being acquitted, the jury were fined large sums, and the 
conviction of others was thus insured. "Wyatt was beheaded, and 
a large number of his followers (by some accounts four hundred and 
fifty) were hanged. 

Elizabeth, who was naturally an object of jealous suspicion to her 
Catholic sister, was committed to the tower, being landed at 
Traitors' Stairs, where she exhibited some resolution, and a good 
deal of feminine petulance and weakness. Mary, urged by the 
emperor, would willingly have executed her ; but not daring openly 
to violate the law, kept her close prisoner in various fortresses. 
Great numbers of the gentry, foreseeing the impending persecutions, 
sold their property, and went over into France. 

In spite of all endeavours of the royal party, and an immense 
sum sent over by the emperor for purposes of bribery, parliament 
refused to sanction any measure giving Spain a foothold in the king- 
dom. They would not even make it treason to conspire against 
the life of the queen's husband; and refused to revive the statute 
of the six articles, and other strong Eomanist laws concerning 
heresy. The marriage took place, (July 25th, 1554,) but all the 
pomp and pageantry displayed on the occasion, could not reconcile 
the people to an alliance which reminded them of Spanish tyranny 
and of the Inquisition. 

The queen's most cherished project was to bring the kingdom 
again under obedience to the Pope ; and for this purpose, a pliable 
House of Commons was required. Orders were issued to the sheriffs 
accordingly, and so fully did they carry out her instructions, that 
not a single Protestant, it would appear, was elected to the new 
house. On meeting, the chancellor, in presence of the royal pair, 
announced to the house their intention of reuniting the realm to 
the Catholic church. The old attainder of Cardinal Pole was 
reversed, and he was received with the highest distinction as papal 
legate. A unanimous petition from the lords and commons prayed 
for readmission into the bosom of the church. In a great meeting 
the legate absolved the realm, and the ancient faith was restored 
with stately ceremonies. The various bills rejected by the former 
parliament were passed. Elizabeth, however, with some other pris- 
oners of distinction, was released by the intervention of Philip, who 
desired to inoratiate himself with the nation. 



ENGLAND. g25 

The queen, determined to overawe or extirpate tlie opponents of 
Rome, had already intimated her intentions to the lords of the council ; 
desiring, however, that none might be burned without a good ser- 
mon as an accompaniment, for the benefit of the people. The car- 
dinal, a man of mild and amiable temper, sought, by gentle means, 
to win back the recusants to his church; and in furtherance of 
this plan, procured a solemn procession, thanksgiving, and rejoicing, 
celebrated by the ominous blaze of bonfires throughout the night. 
This ceremony, called the "Feast of the Reconciliation," was to be 
annually observed. On the third day after, the chancellor, Bonner, 
and other high lords, both lay and clerical, opened a court under 
authority of the legate, for the trial of heretics. 

Their first victim was the Rev. John Rogers, who denied the real 
presence, and was burned at Smithfield, on the 4:th of February. 
He died with great constancy, amid the sympathy and encourage 
ment of an immense crowd of spectators. Four days afterwards. 
Bishop Hooper sufiered the same fate in his own diocese, at Glouces- 
ter. More of these horrible executions followed, under the direction 
of Bonner, to whom the chancellor had relinquished this odious 
of&ce, and who, from his fanaticism and delight in scenes of cruelty, 
was the fittest instrument that persecution could have found. "The 
married clergy," says Mr. Southey, "were observed to suffer with the 
most alacrity. They were bearing testimony to the validity and 
sanctity of their marriage; the honour of their wives and children 
was at stake ; the desire of leaving them an unsullied name, and a 
virtuous example, combined with a sense of religious duty ; and the 
heart derived strength from the very ties which, in other circum- 
stances, would have weakened it." It is worthy of remark that 
Philip's confessor, a Franciscan, named De Castro, more humane or 
enlightened than his contemporaries, at this very time preached a 
sermon more strongly condemning these barbarities, as utterly 
opposed to Christianity. 

A splendid embassy carried the submission of the realm before 
the Pope, which he was pleased to receive, but also demanded the 
restitution of the confiscated church property. Cranmer, Ridley, 
and Latimer, after being kept in prison for some time, were carried 
to Oxford, where for three days they maintained a dispute upon the 
Eucharist and mass with the dominant party, receiving much abuse 
from their opponents. The unfortunate Cranmer was cited to 
appear before the Pope in eighty days, and was then closely impris- 
40 



526 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvT. 

onecl. Bishop Eidley, and Latimer, still maintaining tlieir opinions 
witli constancy, were condemned, and suffered at Oxford, on the 
16th of October. "Be of good comfort. Master Ridley," said Lati- 
mer at the stake, "and play the man. We shall this day, by God's 
grace, kindle in England such a flame as I trust shall never be 
put out." 

Gardiner, who had heretofore managed the parliament with great 
ability and address, having died, the queen met with no little diffi- 
culty in carrying out her projects. A bill for restoring tithes, first- 
fruits, &c., to the Pope, was rejected, and she obtained little for the 
purpose. In other ways the houses exhibited discontent with the 
sanguinary measures of the government. Philip, also, perceiving 
his unpopularity, and despairing of offspring by the queen, returned 
to Flanders, and shortly after inherited, by the resignation of his 
father, the immense possessions which he had acquired. The queen 
solaced herself, in his absence, by reestablishing monasteries, and 
persecuting heretics, sixty-seven of whom were this year condemned 
to the flames for opposing transubstantiation. 

The eighty days appointed for Cranmer's appearance having 
expired, the Pope degraded him, and appointed Pole as primate in 
his place. In February, 1556, Bishops Bonner and Thirlby sat at 
Oxford, as a commission for his trial. In vain he protested against 
the palpable evasion of justice which had been put upon him; he 
was clothed in mock insignia, and publicly scoffed at. After this, 
by the fear of death, and the temptations of his enemies, the 
unhappy man was induced to abjure his opinions, and to sign no less 
than six different recantations. The object of his persecutors was 
now attained, and, owing to the queen's personal hatred and that of 
others, it was determined, contrary to the usual custom, to sacrifice 
him with the rest. Suddenly, and without preparation, he was sum- 
moned forth to die, and, in presence of a large congregation, was 
desired to repeat his recantation. He arose, knelt and prayed, and 
then addressed the people, exhorting them to loyalty, virtue, and 
piety. Then, to the confusion of his enemies, he made the most 
open confession and repentance of his weakness and duplicity in 
falsely denying his true opinions ; and declared that the hand which 
had signed his recantation should be first burned in the flames. He 
was hurried to the stake, where he further lamented his yielding to 
temptation, and held his right hand in the flames until it was con- 
sumed. He then died with great fortitude, and thus, in the opinion 



ENGLAND. g27 

of most, redeemed tlie errors of liis life ; for lie had been a persecutor 
himself, and had condemned others to the flames for doctrines similar 
to those which he sealed with his own blood. 

In March, 1557, Philip came over to obtain the aid of England in 
a war with France. He would not probably have succeeded, unless 
the rival nation had been discovered to have aided an insignificant 
movement against government; which was defeated, and its con- 
triver, Thomas Stafford, beheaded. The queen, by forced loans, 
and the seizure of corn, enlisted and provisioned a force of ten 
thousand men, which she sent, under the earl of Pembroke, to the 
assistance of Philip, in Holland. The fleet, meanwhile, harassed 
the coast of France. A severe reverse, however, awaited the Eng- 
lish. On the 1st of January, 1558, Calais, the only remnant of the 
conquests of Edward III. which, for two hundred years, had been 
in their possession, was taken by the duke of Cruise. This loss 
deeply mortified the people, and so affected the queen, that she 
declared that after her death, "Calais would be found lying in her 
heart." An attempt to retrieve this disaster, by seizing upon the 
port of Brest, failed; but, by assistance of the English, the Count 
Egmont was enabled to give a complete defeat to the French, who 
had invaded Flanders. 

This gloomy and inauspicious reign now drew to a close. Mary 
had been for some time labouring under disease, aggravated by the 
unpopularity which her cruelties had drawn upon her. She beheld 
vfith mortification that all her severities had been unable to check 
the secret spread of heretical opinions; and knew that Elizabeth, 
her successor, privately held the reformed doctrines, and would 
probably reestablish them. Being attacked by an epidemic fever, 
she expired on the 17th of November, 1558, in the forty-third 
year of her age. The cardinal died of the same disease, on the 
following day. 

This queen, though not devoid of good qualities, has left, by her 
fanaticism and cruelty, the most unenviable reputation ; and the 
popular epithet of "Bloody Mary " evinces how deeply the horrors 
of persecution had sunk into the minds of the people. 

With the death of Mary and Cardinal Pole, the papal supremacy 
ended by common consent. Persecution, as usual, had increased 
the zeal of the reformed believers; and many, surveying the con- 
stancy and cheerfulness of the martyrs, and detesting the cruelty of 
their persecutors, embraced the Protestant faith as soon as they could 



628 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

do SO with, safety. During those four years of obstinate attempts at 
forcible conversion, nearly three hundred victims had perished in 
the flames, including bishops, clergy, women, and children. 



ELIZABETH. 

The new queen was immediately proclaimed amid the general 
rejoicings of the people. By the counsel of Sir "William Cecil, her 
chief adviser, she declared her intention of retaining most of the 
counsellors in office. An announcement of her accession was sent 
to foreign princes, and Philip immediately offered her his hand ; 
which, however, was civilly declined. The Pope, on receiving the 
intelligence, passionately declared that she was illegitimate, and 
could not inherit the crown ; but said that if she would renounce 
her claim, and submit entirely to the Holy See, she should be leni 
ently treated. This ridiculous assumption was, of course, entirely 
disregarded. 

Those in prison for opinion's sake were now released, and the 
queen commenced slowly and cautiously to change the established 
forms of worship. She was crowned on the 15th of January, 1559, 
the occasion being celebrated by the most quaint and gorgeous 
pageantry. Elizabeth was at this time twenty-five years of age, 
tolerably good-looking, and, considering the age, remarkably learned 
and accomplished. The new parliament, in which, from obvious 
reasons, there was a strong Protestant ascendancy, immediately con- 
firmed her title to the crown, and commenced the work of religious 
reformation. Tenths, first-fruits, and the supremacy, were restored 
to the crown; and to deny the latter obstinately, was made treason. 
Eight clerical champions, four from each party, were appointed to 
hold a disputation upon the mass, the English liturgy, and the power 
of the church to establish rites and ceremonies. It was curiously 
argued by the supporters of the Latin service, that "ignorance is the 
mother of devotion;" a piece of sophistry which was ably refuted 




ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLANi:. 

THE nAUGHTEH OF HEMKT triTl. ANT3 ANUE BOI.ETN, 

BORN, 1533 — BEOAME QUEEN, 15 5 8 — DIED, IGOt. 

She TTaa a -woman of masculine energy, self-will, and talent for government 
By the sagacity oi' her counsellors, and her own prudence, her reign was emi- 
nently tranquil and successful. The lustre which is attached to her name has. 
however, teen dee]:'ly obscured by her vanity, je.alousy, and revengeful spirit 



ENGLAND. g29 

by the Protestant debaters. On the second meeting, the Romanists 
refusing to argue, because their opponents were to have the last 
word, thev were, after the arbitrary, fashion of the time, fined heavily 
for a contempt, and some of them were committed to the tower. 
The "Act of Uniformity" was then passed, enjoining a stated service, 
under grievous penalties, throughout the kingdom, and imposing a 
fine of a shilling on all who absented themselves from church. Of 
the fifiieen bishops, one only consented to take the oath of supremacy, 
and the others, though suffered at first to remain at liberty, were 
afterwards imprisoned or kept under surveillance for opposing the 
new regulations. Their places were filled with Protestants. The 
great body of the clergy, however, accepted the changes without 
hesitation, and the reformation was thus finally and effectually 
established. 

Peace with France and Scotland was made upon reasonable terms, 
although Elizabeth viewed with great jealousy the young queen of 
Scotland and her husband the dauphin, who had assumed the royal 
arms of England, to which Mary, according to the papal edicts, was 
next heir. The Romanists of England, it was feared, considering 
Elizabeth illegitimate, would look upon Mary as the lawful claimant 
of the throne; it was well known that France secretly cherished 
the scheme of placing her upon it ; and these considerations led the 
queen to seek a secret alliance with the Protestant faction of Scotland. 

Persecution had there produced its usual efiect in exciting the 
zeal and adding to the number of the innovators. The queen-regent, 
who held, according to her own statement, that the promises of princes 
should not be performed, "unless it suits their convenience," had 
by her treachery and severity driven the people into open rebellion. 
Excited by the famous John Knox, a rude and daring reformer, 
they pillaged monasteries, expelled their inmates, and destroyed the 
papistical instruments and ornaments of the churches. The "Con- 
gregation of the Lord," an association headed by influential nobles, 
gained great advantages, and compelled her to come to terms ; which, 
however, she violated at once on receiving forces from France. 

The king of that country dying in 1559, his son, Francis II., and 
Mary, openly assumed the titles of king and queen of France, Scot- 
land, and England. Further aid was prepared for Scotland, and the 
Congregation, seeing themselves overpowered, applied for aid to 
Elizabeth. A fleet and army were despatched to their assistance; 
but hostilities were, for a time, averted by the negotiation of a 



530 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

treaty, in wliicli it was proposed (the queen-regent having died) that 
the French should evacuate the kingdom, and that it should be gov- 
erned bj twelve persons, appointed by the queen and parliament, 
and that the claim to the throne of England should be renounced. 

The young king of France, however, died soon afterwards, and 
Mary, his widow, finding her situation unpleasant, and urged by 
her Scottish subjects, concluded to return to her own kingdom. 
Application was made to Elizabeth for an unmolested passage to 
Scotland, which was peremptorily refused, unless the Scottish queen 
would ratify the treaty. This she refused to do, and there is little 
doubt that her rival, though pretending friendship, privately sent a 
fleet to intercept her passage. In 1561, Mary, weeping, quitted the 
land of her adoption. She watched the shores as long as they were 
in sight, exclaiming, tearfully, "Farewell, France! I shall never see 
thee more." The rough appearance and want of polish of her new 
subjects, did not tend to reconcile her to the change; and with her 
French suite, she was especially annoyed at a loud and discordant 
serenade which her loving subjects, in their joy at her return, kept 
up all night beneath the palace windows. She was at this time 
nineteen, tall, beautiful, talented, and accomplished; and though 
educated in a sphere so entirely different, reigned for some years 
happily and prosperously. Murray, her half-brother, a man of 
great ability, and the head of the Protestant party, aided her with 
his advice; and she listened with prudent patience to the rough 
admonitions of Knox. 

Nevertheless, instigated by her French advisers, she inwardly 
resolved to restore the ancient faith to its former supremacy ; and 
had already promised, if she succeeded to the throne of England, 
to bring that kingdom again under subjection, to the Holy See. 
The Eomanists were naturally pleased with this ; and those Protest- 
ants who, including Elizabeth herself, secretly regarded Mary as 
her rightful successor, were proportionately alarmed. Elizabeth 
still insisted on the ratification of the treaty, but refused to acknowl- 
edge Mary as her successor. 

Both sovereigns being young and personally accomplished, were 
sought in marriage by a number of ambitious suitors; but Eliza- 
beth, while by negotiation amusing the parliament, which was 
anxious to see the succession settled on her issue, secretly deter- 
mined never to subject herself to the power of a husband. Among 
foreigners, Philip, Charles of Austria, Eric of Sweden, the duke of 



ENGLAND. Q^l 

Holstein, and otlier princes souglit lier hand. At home, Arundel, 
Pickering, and Leicester, aspired to tlie elevated rank of consort. 
The latter was a son of the late Northumberland, and the intimacy 
and partiality of the queen are supposed to have tempted him 
to the commission of a horrible crime. His beautiful wife died at 
an obscure residence called Cumnor Hall, from an accident, it was 
said ; but a strong suspicion of murder was attached to the favourite. 

Charles sought also the hand of Mary; Philip offered her his 
son ; the king of Navarre and others of a high rank were desirous 
of a union with her. Her choice, however, was not free; and the 
interference of Elizabeth and that of the reformed faction was such, 
that she could not securely marry without their approbation. Lei- 
cester and others were proposed; but Elizabeth, although she had 
thrust her advice upon her cousin, continued, perhaps from female 
jealousy, to throw obstacles before every project, even such as she 
herself had suggested. Darnley, a youth of twenty, a subject of 
Elizabeth, and descended from the royal line of both kingdoms, at 
last won the favour of the Scottish queen, and in spite of the oppo- 
sition of England and many of her own nobility, she married him, 
and bestowed on , him the title of king. Murray, and other lords 
having taken up arms, she marched against them, riding armed at 
the head of her troops, and drove them from the kingdom. They 
took refuge in England, where Elizabeth, while openly denouncing 
them as traitors, secretly countenanced and assisted them. 

Mary soon discovered her husband to be brutal, intemperate, and 
foolish. He lost her favour, which was bestowed entirely upon 
David Eizzio, an Italian musician. Though it does not appear that 
any criminal connection existed, the jealousy of Darnley and other 
nobles was so great, that they resolved to assassinate the favourite. 
They further agreed to procure for Darnley the title of "crown- 
matrimonial," which the queen had hitherto withheld, an amnesty 
for the exiled lords, and the establishment of the Protestant reli- 
gion. The unhappy Eizzio, while supping with the queen, was 
dragged out by the conspirators, and despatched with fifty-six 
wounds. Mary, finding herself overpowered, fled with her hus- 
band, whom she had prevailed on to accompany her. Collecting a 
force of eight thousand men, she reentered Edinburgh, and com- 
pelled the confederates to take refuge in England. Soon after, she 
gave birth to a son, destined to sit upon the throne of both kingdoms. 

Darnley had never been forgiven for the murder of her favourite; 



532 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

and Bothwell, a daring, ambitious man, witTi whom she was fascin- 
ated, engrossed all her favour. He received the most distinguished 
honours, and aspired to greater. Chance favoured his design. The 
king, who had been ill with the small-pox, was lodged in a lonely 
house without the walls, where the queen often visited him. With 
the connivance of some other men of rank, and probably with that 
of Mary herself, he resolved to destroy him ; and in the dead of 
night, blew up the house with a mine of gunpowder. Every one 
suspected him; but the queen continued to lavish favours upon him, 
and thus increased the public conviction of her own guilt. Attended 
by a great host of armed retainers, he underwent the mockery of a 
trial, and was acquitted. His great ascendancy over the queen's 
mind was next exhibited by her approval of a laAV, protecting the 
reformed opinions — a measure by which Both well hoped to ensure 
to himself the support of the Protestant party. 

Proceeding in his ambitious career, he invited all the nobles 
assembled in parliament to sup with him at a certain tavern ; where, 
the house being filled with his soldiers, they all signed an instrument 
recommending his marriage with the queen, and pledging themselves 
to maintain it. After a faint pretence of reluctance, she married 
him, and thus lent an additional weapon to those who accused her 
of the murder of Darnley. No question in history has been more ably 
or frequently debated, than that of Mary's criminality or innocence ; 
but the most reliable judgments have decided that her implication 
in the death of her husband is placed almost beyond a doubt. She 
had vowed to revenge the death of Rizzio, and perhaps persuaded 
herself that she was only permitting justice to be executed upon his 
principal assassin. 

Bothwell now exercised the complete authority ; but his rule was 
short. Several of the principal nobles entered into an association 
against him, and in less than a month he was compelled to part from 
the queen, and to fly the kingdom. Mary hei'self, being taken and 
conducted to Edinburgh, was overwhelmed with insult by the popu- 
lace, and was finally committed to the castle of Lochlevin, situated 
in the midst of a lake. She was also compelled, under a threat of 
instant death if she refused, to sign a resignation of the crown in 
favour of her infant son. Murray was appointed regent, and the 
prince was crowned on July 29th, 1567, by the title of James YI. 
These proceedings were ratified by parliament, and Mary was declared 
accessary to the death of her husband. Elizabeth, dreading this 



ENGLAND. 633 

example of revolt, strongly expressed her disapprobation, and 
attempted to negotiate in favour of the captive princess. 

'in 1568, Mary escaped from her confinement, and was joined by 
some of her attached adherents, with a force of eight thousand men. 
The regent gave them battle at Langside Hill, and utterly defeated 
them. The queen was compelled to fly precipitately into England. 
Having arrived, she addressed a letter to Elizabeth, requesting an 
interview, and desiring assistance in regaining her crown. Both 
these requests were refused, and, to the deep disgrace of the English 
sovereign and council, it was meanly determined to take advantage 
of her helpless situation, and detain her as a prisoner. A commis- 
sion was appointed to investigate the charges against her, her 
unnatural brother, Murray, being the chief prosecutor. No final 
decision was made, as Mary refused to proceed with her defence, 
except in presence of the queen and nobility of England. Murray, 
though not acknowledged as regent, was dismissed with a handsome 
gratuity. Liberty was offered to the captive, if she would resign her 
crown, or associate the prince with her, and yield the regency to 
Murray during the minority. This she refused, alleging that such 
an act would be a confession of guilt. Her demand to go into France 
was refused, and she was still detained prisoner. 

Meanwhile, a secret treaty, in which the first nobles of England 
were implicated, had been made for her marriage to the powerful 
duke of Norfolk, and her reestablishment upon the Scottish throne. 
Alliance with England, and an immunity for the reformed religion, 
were among the stipulated terms. Elizabeth, on hearing the particu- 
lars from Leicester, who betrayed his allies, committed the duke 
and other lords to prison ; a step which was soon followed by the 
celebrated "Rising in the North." The earls of Northumberland 
and Westmoreland, who were deeply implicated in a plot for the 
deliverance of Mary, raised the standard of revolt, and mustered 
about seven thousand men. Though professing loyalty to the queen, 
they proclaimed an intention to restore the ancient religion, and to 
release the lords from prison. Finding, after some unimportant 
movements, that they were not supported by the Catholics in gen- 
eral, their forces dispersed, and the leaders fled into Scotland. 
Northumberland was afterwards taken and executed, and Westmore- 
land died in exile on the Continent. Dacres, who, with three 
thousand men, revolted in 1570, was defeated, after a severe contest, 
and took refuge in Flanders. 



634 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. 

The Englisli queen and council now began to reap tte fruits of 
their injustice in detaining Mary, and would have delivered her to 
Murray, but for his assassination shortly after these events. There 
seems little doubt that at this time there existed an extensive con- 
federation between the Pope, the king of Spain, and others, aided 
by the Catholic nobility in England, to restore the ancient religion, 
and probably to dethrone Elizabeth, and place Mary in her stead. 
The captive queen was informed of the projects, and, almost as a 
matter of course, approved them ; and these circumstances filled the 
minds of Elizabeth and her ministers with that constant jealousy 
and. alarm, which finally resulted in the disgraceful execution of 
their prisoner. One Felton, about this time, was executed as a 
traitor for posting a bull of the Pope (excommunicating the queen, 
and denying her title). A farther proposal was now made to Mary, 
to release and restore her to her throne, on con ditions which would 
have made Scotland a mere dependancy on the neighbouring king- 
dom. The agreement, however, was not concluded. 

The reign of Elizabeth, for the first ten years, had been eminently 
successful and prosperous. She was aided by the advice of the 
ablest counsellors, of whom Cecil, Lord Burleigh, Yv^as the most 
distinguished. The Catholics had almost universally conformed to 
the changes in worship instituted by government, and the queen 
was generally popular. From the imprisonment of Mary, dates a 
new period; a period of domestic plots, foreign hostility, and that 
embarrassment which usually accompanies a persistance in injustice. 
Those who believed in Mary's guilt, pitied her unjust and unlawful 
confinement ; and those who were devoted to her person and religion, 
often resorted to the most desperate expedients. 

Religion, as in the two preceding reigns, was the principal element 
in politics; and the state was divided into three parties, each pro- 
fessing a different belief These were — the Churchmen, who held their 
faith as established by government — the Catholics, who remained 
faithful to the ancient Romish belief — and the Puritans, who, emu- 
lating the continental zeal, would have pushed the Reformation 
farther, and abolished nearly all the prescribed forms and ceremo- 
nies. A great historian has considered the reformation of the 
English Church as the most moderate and sensible of the various 
religious changes which occurred in Europe. "The fabric of the 
secular hierarchy was maintained entire ; the ancient liturgy was 
preserved, so far as was thought consistent with the new principles; 



ENGLAND. 535 

many ceremonies, become venerable from age and preceding nse, 
were retained; the splendour of the Komish worship, though 
removed, had at least given place to order and decency ; the distinct- 
ive habits of the clergy, according to their different ranks, were 
continued ; no innovation was admitted merely from opposition to 
former usage. " 

The tranquillizing effect of these moderate and prudent measures 
was disturbed bj^ the zeal of the Puritans, who insisted on further 
changes and further severities toward the adherents of Eome. The 
discontent was greatly aggravated by Rome herself, who lost no 
opportunity, by open bulls and private emissaries, to arouse the 
Catholic subjects. The faction opposed to the latter was numerous 
and powerful, numbering in its ranks some of the first men in the 
state. The church party, though nominally in possession of power, 
was the weakest of the three ; and Elizabeth, though holding the 
supremacy as one of her most cherished attributes, was yet secretly 
inclined to transubstantiation, image-worship, and celibacy of the 
clergy. This last, however, may have arisen from a certain femi- 
nine jealousy, which led her to discountenance and break off, if 
possible, the marriages of all over whom she had any control. 
She had occasionally assisted the French Huguenots with money 
and men. 

In 1571, after an interval of five years, parliament met; and as 
the Puritan interest was predominant, further penalties were enacted 
against the Catholics. It was also made a high offence to name any 
person as Elizabeth's successor, except her natural issue. The fol- 
lowing year, Norfolk, who had been released, was again arrested 
for having conspired to release and marry the Scottish queen, and 
to abrogate the lavfs against Catholicism. He was found guilty by 
a commission of the lords, and finally executed. On the 23d of 
August, 1572, on the Eve of St. Bartholomew, a terrible massacre 
of the Protestants took place in France. At least thirty thousand 
perished; and the Catholics on the Continent were filled with 
unbounded exultation. England, however, was moved with strong 
indignation, and the French ambassador, on his presentation, was 
received by the court in deep mourning, and with profound silence. 
The queen nevertheless continued a negotiation for marriage with 
the French king's brother, and soon after stood godmother to his child. 

The court of London, alarmed at the aspect of foreign affairs, and 
dreading domestic plots, now began to entertain thoughts of executing 



g36 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

their prisoner, tlie Queen of Scots, for whose release the Catholic 
world was so dangerously anxious. Burleigh, Walsingham, and 
others, thought it advisable; and the bishop of London, writing to 
the former, suggested as the first step "furthwith to cutte off the 
Scottish queue's heade." It was first proposed to deliver her to the 
Scots, on condition that they would execute her ; but this scheme 
took no effect. The continental Protestants now received aid from 
England, and their cause began to prosper. 

A period of some tranquillity ensued. Mary, who had been 
acquainted with most of the plans for her release, seeing the hope- 
lessness of her condition, became resigned to her fate; and the 
Catholics, not being actively molested, remained quiet. Scotland, 
under the vile regent Morton, was entirely governed by English 
influence. The national genius for naval and commercial enterprise 
now broke forth in great splendour. Commerce with Eussia and 
the Levant was established. The slave-trade in its worst form was 
commenced by the celebrated Hawkins. Sir Martin Frobisher 
explored the northern shores of America as far as Hudson's Bay. 
The most celebrated navigator of the day was Francis Drake, who, 
after various adventures in commerce and piracy, took, with a pri- 
vate force, a Spanish town on the isthmus of Panama, and ascending 
the mountains, beheld the Pacific Ocean. Five years afterwards, in 
1577, he set sail, with a very small equipment, for the Pacific, and 
having lost all his vessels except one, cruised along the western 
coast of South America, plundering all Spanish vessels which he 
encountered; then stretching boldly to the west, he weathered the 
Cape of Good Hope, and reached England, after a voyage of three 
years, during which he had circumnavigated the globe, and taken 
plunder to the amount of near four millions of dollars. The queen 
knighted him, and partook of a banquet in his vessel. 

She was now deeply engaged in a project for marrying the duke 
of Anjou, brother to the . French king, and a man very much 
younger than herself. The plan was generally unpopular; and a 
zealous Puritan, named Stubbs, wrote a book, entitled, "The Gulf 
in which England will be swallowed by the French Marriage." 
Both he and his printer suffered the penalty of losing their right 
hands. In 1682, while Anjou was at the English court, the queen 
publicly gave him a ring as a pledge of her acceptance of his suit. 
The matter was regarded as settled; but Elizabeth, overcome by 
the arguments and entreaties of her ministers, again dismissed him, 



ENGLAND. 637 

and lie withdrew, flinging away tlie ring, and exclaiming against 
the fickleness of women, especially islanders. 

In 1581, new laws were enacted against the Catholics, and tlie 
former ones were more rigidly enforced; attendance on the pre- 
scribed services was compelled, under very heavy penalties; and 
persecution was glutted by the execution of those priests who 
privately exercised their function. The Jesuits and others were 
tortured and cruelly put to death as traitors, ten of them being 
executed on one accusation. In Scotland, the regent Morton, hav- 
ing been lately beheaded for his former implication in the murder 
of Darnley, the Catholic faction matured a plan for the joint gov- 
ernment of Mary and James, which they and other high personages 
approved ; but this scheme fell through, in consequence of the seizure 
of the young king by the Protestant leaders. The English influence 
still retained its ascendancy. 

Conspiracies were becoming rife again, and the council resorted 
to every method, even the most dishonourable, to gain information. 
Letters were written by them to leading Catholics in the name of 
Mary, and those who replied were arrested. Eminent lords were 
cited before the council, and the rack was freely used on those of 
lesser rank, to discover their secrets. There appears, however, to 
have been little ground for apprehension of a revolt, for the queen 
was exceedingly popular, and whenever she appeared in public, 
crowds fell upon their knees, invoking blessings on her head. It 
was resolved, however, to get some hold upon the life of Mary, and 
parliament accordingly enacted that if "any invasion or rebellion 
should be made by or for any person pretending to the crown after 
her majesty's decease, or any conspiracy against her person," a 
commission of peers should be appointed, with power to give judg- 
ment as they might see fit. Further and severer laws, if possible, 
were also passed against the Catholics. At this time, one Dr. Parry 
was executed for having designed to assassinate the queen, and, as 
he averred, by the approval of the Pope himself 

In 1585, the Dutch being almost overpowered by their enemies, 
were assisted by England with a force of six thousand men, com- 
manded by the earl of Leicester. His first campaign was not very 
fortunate, and that gallant knight Sir Philip Sidney, the model of a 
soldier and gentleman, lost his life during the siege of Zutphen. 
Wounded and dying, he gave the water, which had been brought 
him, to a wounded soldier, who was eying it wistfully, saying, "Thy 



638 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOET. 

necessity is yet greater than mine." Meanwhile, Drake, who had 
been despatched to the West Indies, met with great success, took 
several towns, and returned with much spoil. In 1586, a Protestant 
alliance was concluded between Elizabeth and James of Scotland. 

In the same year, a dangerous conspiracy, comprising an insurrec- 
tion and the assassination of the queen, was detected by Walsingham. 
The authors of it were betrayed by one of their associates, and, the 
minister allowed them to entangle themselves fully, while he perused 
all their correspondence. Mary was apprised of the plan, and, it was 
said, consented, though this has never been proved to the satisfac- 
tion of impartial judges. When Ballard, Babington, and the other 
conspirators had fully committed themselves, they were arrested, 
tried, and condemned as traitors. Seven of them were executed 
according to the ancient barbarity of disembowelling alive; the 
others were previously hanged till they were dead. 

It was now considered by the court a favourable time to proceed 
against Mary, and thus rid themselves of one whose imprisonment 
menaced them with perpetual danger and alarm. Leicester, who 
had returned, proposed to poison her privately ; but the clergj^man 
whom he sent to Walsingham, was unable to persuade him of the 
propriety of this course. A commission of forty noblemen and oth- 
ers was then appointed under the late act. Mary denied the truth 
of the charges, as well as the authority of the commission ; but being 
told that she would do injustice to her reputation by refusing an 
investigation, finally agreed to plead, provided that her protest 
against the lawfulness of the proceedings should be received. This 
was assented to, and the protest was recorded. The testimony 
against her was of a very questionable character, and she af&rmed 
that a letter produced as her's, and proving her implication in the 
scheme, was a forgery. During several days, in which the trial pro- 
ceeded, she defended herself with the greatest firmness and ability. 
JSTevertheless, she was found guilty, an event which was almost 
equally certain before as after the trial. 

The sovereigns of France and Scotland interfered openly to save 
her, but it is said that their messengers secretly advised her execu- 
tion. Indeed, the whole affair indicates such a spirit of cruelty, 
treachery, and meanness among royal and noble characters, as plainly 
shows the depraving influence of power and jealousy. More strenu- 
ous exertions would probably have failed. Elizabeth had now in 
her power the rival, whose claims to the throne, whose personal 



ENGLAND. 639 

accomplisTiinents, and tlie zeal of whose partisans had. so long 
rendered her suspicious, jealous, and insecure. On the Scottish 
ambassadors desiring a respite of her life for eight days, "Not for 
an hour!" she answered, and abruptly left them. 

She now most hypocritically pretended an aversion to blood, yet 
privately sent for the death-warrant, and signed it. Still she felt 
reluctant to incur the responsibility, and frequently attempted to 
engage Davison, the secretary, to undertake the private assassina- 
tion of Mary. Her keepers, however, men of character, and well 
aware that they would also be made the victims, if they complied, 
refused bluntly, "to shed blood without law or warrant." At length, 
finding that private assassins were not as freely at her command as 
at that of her predecessors, she gave legal orders for the execution 
of her victim, "swearing with a great oath," says Davison, "that it 
was a shame to us all that it was not already done," &c. 

Mary was executed on the 8th of February, 1787, in the forty- 
sixth year of her age. Although her last moments were disturbed 
by the fanatical interference of those who conducted the tragedy, 
she died with the greatest dignity and cheerfulness, asserting to the 
last her innocence of any intentions against the life of Elizabeth. 

Whatever may have been her former faults or crimes, it is gener- 
ally conceded that her execution at the instance of Elizabeth was a 
crime of the basest character, founded on personal jealousy, and on 
the alarm continually inspired by the attempts of the Catholics. 
Her end being attained, however, the queen exhibited the vilest 
hypocrisy, reproaching her counsellors, and putting her court into 
mourning. Davison was committed to the tower, and ruinously 
fined, on the pretext that he had executed the warrant ; but in reality 
to punish him for refasing the ofiice of an assassin, and to impose 
upon the public mind by a display of indignation. 

James, on hearing of the execution of his mother, at first pretended 
great resentment, but speedily allowed himself to be pacified, well 
knowing that any serious dispute with Elizabeth might, at some 
future day, cost him the throne of England. 

Philip of Spain now preparing for an invasion of the island, 
Drake was sent against him. This renowned commander destroyed 
a hundred of his vessels in the port of Cadiz, and gained other sig- 
nal successes. The English seamen were thus emboldened, and the 
attempt was deferred for a year. Leicester, who had returned to 
Holland, met with ill-success, and was recalled. In 1558, Philip 



640 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

again made immense preparations, and the prince of Parma, his 
all J, raised a great force, ready for transportation to the shores of 
England. Vigorous preparations for defence were made by the 
English government, and all men between sixteen and sixty were 
required to exercise in arms. A large army was raised, and a fleet 
of an hundred and eighty-one vessels, manned by seventeen thou- 
sand seamen, was provided — chiefly by the zeal of the citizens of 
London and the nobility. It was commanded by Howard, the lord- 
high-admiral, and under him, by Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher. 
The Catholics joined heartily in defence of their country. 

On the 29th of May, 1588, "The Invincible Armada," as the 
Spaniards haughtily styled it, set sail from the Tagus, imder com- 
mand of the duke of Medina Sidonia. It consisted of an hundred 
and thirty ships, two thousand six hundred and thirty cannon, 
twenty-nine thousand men, and an hundred and eighty priests for 
the conversion of the English heretics. On its passage up the chan- 
nel to Calais, (where it did not arrive till the 27th of July,) it was 
harassed by the lighter and swifter fleet of the English, and several 
vessels were taken. Here the duke ascertained that the prince of 
Parma, beset by enemies, was unable to perform his share of the 
undertaking. The English also sent eight fire-ships into the midst 
of the Spanish fleet. They weighed anchor, but were much shat- 
tered by a tempest, and finally concluded, rather than encounter the 
perils of the channel, to sail round Scotland and Ireland. The 
English pursued them until ammunition failed. Numbers of their 
ships were wrecked on the coast, and the crews butchered by the 
inhabitants. This invincible expedition finally arrived at Spain 
with a loss of thirty large ships and about ten thousand men. The 
queen, throughout the impending danger, had evinced great spirit, 
reviewing her troops in person, and encouraging them by her elo- 
quence. Her ofl&cers and seamen were generously rewarded. 

At this time died the earl of Leicester, 'who, for thirty years, had 
been one of the prime favourites of Elizabeth; leaving the degree 
and nature of their intimacy a matter of much question for after- 
times. His character presents a curious compound of crimes and 
vices mixed with ability, generosity, and magnanimity. 

In 1589, by way of revenge, Drake and others fitted out a private 
expedition against Spain, which, after some successes, was compelled 
to return by the ravages of sickness. Half the troops had perished, 
and of eleven hundred gentlemen, not one-third returned. Henry 



ENGLAND. g41 

IV. of France, who was at this time engaged in war with the Catho- 
lic League, was assisted with money and forces; and the English, 
commanded by Sir John Norris, the valiant earl of Essex, and 
others, gained many laurels. A naval warfare against Spain was 
still continued, and Frobisher and other commanders did much 
injury to her commerce. Maritime enterprise flourished. The East 
Indies were reached by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. Span- 
ish towns were captured, and many vessels taken on the coast of 
South America. In 1595, the gallant Sir Walter Ealeigh made an 
enterprising voyage and tour of discovery in the same region, seek- 
ing the famous and fabulous city of El Dorado. 

Philip making fresh preparations in 1596, it was resolved to 
attack him. An hundred and fifty vessels, with fourteen thousand 
men, commanded by Howard, Essex, Ealeigh, and other celebrated 
commanders, sailed for Cadiz. The Spanish fleet, at anchor there, 
was defeated; the town was taken, and an hundred and twenty 
thousand crowns were forcibly levied. The town, with a large 
number of merchant vessels, was burned, and the entire damage to 
the king of Spain on this occasion, was estimated at twenty millions 
of ducats. A fresh expedition of great force, commanded by 
Essex, and under him by Ealeigh and Sir Thomas Howard, set sail 
in 1597, but owing to a tempest, and to the want of nautical skill 
in Essex, effected but little. On their return, Essex fell into disgrace 
from a ludicrous circumstance. In a warm debate, he petulantly 
turned his back upon the queen, who instantly dealt him a sound 
box on the ear. He clapped his hand to his sword, swearing that 
he would not suffer such treatment from Henry YIII. himself, and 
left the presence abruptly. He was afterwards restored, apparently, 
to favour. At this time died Lord Burleigh, for forty years the 
most sagacious and confidential of the queen's advisers. 

Ireland, throughout the reign of Elizabeth, had been in a state of 
almost constant turmoil and warfare. The attempt to force the 
reformed doctrines upon the people had been met by determined 
resistance — a resistance which, in various forms, has been actively 
maintained to the present day. Hugh O'Neal, earl of Tyrone, 
assisted by Spain, revolted, and defeated the English forces which 
opposed him. Essex, at his own earnest desire, was sent against 
him, with eighteen thousand men. Through mismanagement and 
desertion, he found himself unable to accomplish any thing, and, 
dreading the influence of his enemies at court, hastened home with- 
41 



542 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

out orders, and suddenly entered the queen's cTiamber, Taken by 
surprise, she received him graciously ; but the next day, vexed at 
his disobedience, committed him to a mild custody. She also refused 
to renew a monopoly which he had held, alleging that " an unruly 
beast must be stinted of its provender." Irritated at these dis- 
graces, he began to meditate a conspiracy, and, more imprudently 
still, publicly abused the qiieen's person, saying that she was now 
grown an old woman, and as crooked in body as in mind. Plans 
were entered into by his partisans to seize the palace, and compel 
the queen to dismiss his enemies. On the 8th of February, 1601, 
the earl, who had been ordered to keep his own house, marched 
through the streets with nearly three hundred knights, gentlemen, 
and others of his faction; but finding that the people did not join 
him, surrendered to the queen's troops. Being tried for treason 
before a jury of peers, he was found guilty, and in a few days 
beheaded ; the queen exhibiting a great conflict between her pride 
and the real affection which she felt for him. He died in his thirty- 
fourth year, leaving a reputation for high courage and magnanim- 
ity, as well as for rashness and ambition. Others implicated in the 
the affair shared his fate. 

In 1602, the Deputy Mountjoy reduced Tyrone and the other 
revolted chiefs to submission ; and six thousand men, sent to their 
aid by the king of Spain, were forced to capitulate. 

Elizabeth was now nearly seventy, and the good health and 
spirits which she had always hitherto enjoyed, began to fail. The 
memory of Essex continually haunted her, and she sat for long 
intervals silent and in tears. Having recovered from an alarming 
stupor, for ten days she refused food and medicine. As she was 
evidently dying, the chief officers of state inquired whom she wished 
to be her successor. She selected James of Scotland, and soon 
afterwards expired, on the 24th of March, 1603, after a long and 
(as the term is commonly used) prosperous reign of forty -five years. 
The vigour of mind, the prudence and success of this sovereign, 
have secured for her the admiration both of her subjects and for- 
eigners. Her talent in perceiving merit was equal to her judgment 
in employing it ; and no sovereign was ever surrounded b}^ more 
brilliant and able favourites. Her defects were not greater than 
those of most of her predecessors, though appearing more glaring 
in a woman. She was excessively fond of dress and display; a 
trait which, however, increased her popularity. She was passionate, 



ENGLAND. g43 

and wlien incensed, would swear and strike freely. Her reputation 
for modesty has been often attacked and defended. She has, how- 
ever, always been an especial favourite with the English nation. 

During her reign, four persons were burned for heresy, and about 
thirty Catholic priests, and some of those who harboured them, suf- 
fered the horrible death of traitors. Owing to the increase of men- 
dicancy, and the suppression of the monasteries, which had formerly 
relieved it. Poor Laws became necessary, and Avere, for the first time, 
enacted. Commerce made great advances, though fettered by gross 
and oppressive monopolies. Literature attained the highest excel- 
lence. Shakspeare, Spenser, and a host of other brilliant names, have 
made the " Elizabethan age " the brightest in the annals of letters. 
Newspapers, also, at this time first made their appearance in England. 

With Elizabeth ended the reign of the house of Tudor. During 
their dynasty, though to all appearance almost absolute, a new and 
most important power had been gradually growing up — that of the 
commons. They were cautious, especiallj'- latterly, of provoking it 
too far; and sought to counterpoise the opposing influence by the 
creation of new and useless boroughs, to be filled with their own 
creatures. The iniquitous court of the Star Chamber (so called 
from the council sitting in a room adorned with stars) was an arbi- 
trary tribunal, irresponsible except to the sovereign. The High 
Commission was a kind of Inquisition, composed of prelates and 
others, having almost despotic power over religious opinions. The 
exercise of these authorities, opposed by the commons, was destined, 
at no distant day, to* overthrow the government. 



uitiAiidiiii AVii, 



JAMES I. 

Although, by the will of Henry Ylll. and the accompanying 
act of parliament, the succession had been otherwise settled, James, 
who was the hereditary heir, succeeded without the least opposition. 
This was chiefly due to the efforts of Cecil, the son of Burleigh, 
who had been in treaty with him for some time before the queen's 



644 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

death. The king left a barren and impoverished country, to enter 
the splendid and luxurious possession which he "facetiously called 
"The Land of Promise." The popularity which hailed his first 
appearance was nearly gone before he reached the capital. His per- 
sonal appearance was ungainly, his demeanour ungracious; and he 
hanged a pickpocket on the way, without law or trial. A number 
of Scots were added to the former council, and titles were bestowed 
with a prodigality that greatly diminished their value. 

James was at this time thirty-six years of age, and was, as Sully 
the French ambassador remarked, "the wisest fool in Christendom." 
The "British Solomon" (as he loved to be styled) was learned, wrote 
with facility, and possessed a good deJgree of shrewdness and saga- 
city; but was remarkably destitute of enlarged and practical good 
sense. Hardly had he assumed the crown, when it was menaced by 
two conspiracies. One, to surprise the king, imprison him, and 
secure toleration for the Catholics, was planned by certain priests 
and Romanists ; the other, to place Arabella Stuart, a lady of the 
royal line, upon the throne, was the scheme of Lord Cobham and 
others. Both were detected, and the parties arrested. The most 
interesting trial was that of Sir Walter Ealeigh, who had been com- 
mitted on accusation of participating in both. The proof against 
him was of the most unreliable nature ; he defended himself with 
great ability and force; yet the jury, to please Cecil and the king, 
whose succession he had opposed, found him guilty. He was com- 
mitted indefinitely to the tower. Some of the prisoners were 
executed, but Cobham, who turned state's-evidence,. was spared. 

The king's attention was next engaged by a fierce movement for 
further religious reform, opposed as vehemently by the two univer- 
sities. A conference of the two parties was appointed. The 
primate, the bishop of London, and many other ecclesiastics of high 
rank, appeared to defend their ceremonies; but when the case of 
the petitioners was stated, the king flew into a passion, told them 
that their purposes agreed with monarchy "as well as God and the 
devil," and said he would never hearken to them until he was pursy 
and fat, and needed exercise, which such doings would be sure to 
give him. With other similar abuse he disposed of the case ; and 
the prelates assured him that he had spoken by the spirit of God, 
and that there had never been such a king since. the time of Christ, 
Orders for strict conformity were immediately issued, and a griev- 
ous though bloodless persecution commenced. 



ENGLAND. 545 

Presently danger sprung up from tlie opposite quarter — the 
equall}^ injured Catholic party. In the year 1604, a number of 
ardent and unscrupulous Eomanists conspired to strike a terrible 
blow at their enemies. Their object was nothing less than the 
entire destruction of the royal family and both houses of parlia- 
ment. For a time they endeavoured to mine through the basement 
of the parliament-house, and afterwards hired a cellar under it, 
which had been used for storing fuel. After long and arduous exer- 
tions, they succeeded in conveying thirty-six barrels of powder to 
this receptacle, and covered them with large stones and logs of wood. 
Parliament was to meet on the 5th of November, 1605, and it was 
arranged that on that day the magazine should be fired, and the Catho- 
lics should assemble, and proclaim as queen the Princess Elizabeth. 
A few days beforehand, a letter was received by Lord Monteagle, 
warning him, in ambiguous terms, not to attend the opening of par- 
liament, and hinting at some unforeseen and awful calamity. This 
excited suspicion ; diligent search was made ; and on the day before 
the 5th, the mine was discovered, and Guy Fawkes, the principal 
agent in this horrible scheme, was arrested on the spot. When 
brought before the council, like a thorough fanatic, he avowed his 
intention, and gloried in it. The names of his associates were forced 
from him by the rack, and they were mostly apprehended. A small 
number, who had openly risen, were forced to surrender. The 
principal conspirators, eight in number, were executed after the bar- 
barous manner of the times, vindicating and defending their scheme 
to the last. Though attempts have been made by the more zealous 
and prejudiced of their opponents to throw the odium of this 
"Gunpowder-plot" upon the mass of English Catholics, it seems 
certain that, great as their provocation to revenge might be, it met 
with their hearty abhorrence. 

The king was anxiously desirous to bring about a legal union of 
the two kingdoms; but succeeded only to a comparatively small 
extent. For a number of years he carried on a continued contest 
with the commons, struggling to gain subsidies without conditions ; 
and they, on the other hand, endeavouring to obtain the reform of 
purveyance, and other ancient abuses. Salisbury, (Cecil, the son of 
Burleigh) his chief adviser, died in 1612. In the same year died 
Prince Henry, the heir-apparent, a youth of the highest promise, 
and greatly beloved by the people. The circumstances of his death, 
and the subsequent conduct of James (who regarded him with jeal- 



646 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

ousy) have given rise to suspicions of an unnatural crime; but 
there is little foundation for such a supposition. 

The king's prime favourite for a long time had been the earl of 
Somerset, a man of high personal accomplishments, but destitute 
of principle and integrity. He flourished for many years in the 
royal favour, but was finally supplanted by George Yilliers, a younger 
and more pleasing rival. Somerset's implication in the horrible 
murder of Sir Thomas Overbury, in the tower, furnished a sufficient 
pretext for his disgrace; and the new favourite soon enjoyed almost 
unlimited power, controlling the king and all around him. 

Through his influence. Sir Walter Ealeigh, after an imprisonment 
of thirteen years, was released, and permitted to command an 
exploring expedition to Guiana. Various misfortunes and the hos- 
tility of the Spaniards compelled him to return unsuccessful; and 
Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, whose near kinsman had been 
slain in one of the encounters, sought his revenge. To the eternal 
disgrace of James, who was anxious to marry his son to the Span- 
ish infanta, he consented to the sacrifice of this great man, and, 
reviving the ancient sentence, gave orders for his execution. He 
died with the greatest courage and cheerfulness, leaving a splendid 
reputation as a soldier, a statesman, and an author. 

Sir Edward Coke, the chief justice, who had boldly defended the 
laws against the encroachment of the royal prerogative, was dis- 
missed from his office. Sir Francis Bacon, a man of the highest 
abilities, but of a mean and time-serving disposition, was appointed 
to the office of chancellor. In 1621, a parliament being summoned, 
proceeded to inquire strictly into the existing abuses. The most 
celebrated culprit impeached by them was Bacon, now Viscount 
St. Albans, who was arraigned for bribery and corruption in his 
office. He was found guilty, made a full confession, and was sen- 
tenced to pay a fine of forty thousand pounds, and to be imprisoned 
during the king's pleasure. These penalties were remitted by the 
king, and five years afterwards this celebrated man died in solitude 
and disgrace — a memorable instance of high talents and splendid 
opportunities, debased by the want of principle and honesty. His 
philosophical works have always been held among the most valuable 
and original in the English language. 

The session terminated in a fierce quarrel with the king, who 
resented the advice of the parliament on state affaii's, dissolved them, 
and committed some of the most prominent members to prison. In 



ENGLAND. g^.^ 

hopes to conciliate Spain, the Catholic penalties were, by his authority, 
greatly relaxed ; and negotiations for the marriage of Prince Charles 
to the infanta were diligently carried on. Yilliers, who was now mar- 
quis of Buckingham, had gained a complete ascendancy over the 
mind of the prince, as well as that of his father. He persuaded Charles 
to set off with him for Spain, in person, and, by browbeating the king, 
gained his consent. These young knights errant, under the names 
of Jack and Tom Smith, passed rapidly through France, and were 
received with great distinction at Madrid. Articles of marriage 
were agreed upon, and a day for the espousal was fixed; but the 
whole matter Avas finally broken off by the caprice of Buckingham, 
who had taken some offence, and whose influence with the king was 
irresistible. 

By his intrigues and misrepresentations, the commons were 
induced to believe that the fault lay with Spain; the people, ever 
hostile to that nation, exhibited the greatest delight at the prospect 
of a war : and parliament voted three hundred thousand pounds for 
carrying on the contest. In 1624, the prince was contracted to 
Henrietta, sister of the French king ; but James was not destined to 
witness the completion of his favourite project. He died on the 
27th of March, in the following year, after a reign of twenty-two 
years. The mixture of learning and folly which characterized this 
monarch, has left his memory associated with somewhat of the ludi- 
crous; while the grossness of his personal habits, and the mean 
selfishness which marked his political career, have oppressed his 
name with deserved odium. 

During his reign, the experiment of colonizing Ireland with 
English inhabitants was attempted on a large scale; and though 
many circumstances retarded its progress, the general effect has been 
favourable to the civilization of that country. 

Eeligious jealousy and bigotry continued in full force throughout 
his reign ; the chief contest being between the Churchmen and Puri- 
tans. To the latter, though gloomy and censorious, the liberties of 
England are highly indebted. They always stood foremost in par- 
liament to defend the laws and the rights of the subject against the 
usurpations of the royal prerogative; yet, with a strange inconsist- 
ency, would have altogether denied to the Catholics that liberty of 
conscience which they so manfully upheld for themselves. Their 
good deeds have, however, survived them, while the evil that 
alloyed them has, in a great measure, disappeared. 



548 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKT. 



CHAPTEB X?H 



CHARLES I. 

Chakles, wlio became king at tlie age of twenty -five; was of a 
grave and hanglaty character. His morals and manners contrasted 
most favourably with those of his predecessor ; but he was a bigoted 
believer in the absolute authority of kings, and Buckingham, the 
odious favourite, still maintained his entire preeminence. The king 
married Henrietta, and soon afterwards met his first parliament. 
Opposition to the court was excessively strong — the Puritans and the 
defenders of civil liberty greatly outnumbering their opponents. 
Subsidies were scantily and reluctantly voted, accompanied by 
requests for the redress of grievances. An impeachment of Buck- 
ingham was in agitation, when the king, to save his favourite, 
dissolved the assembly. He, however, by arbitrary measures, raised 
money for the war with Spain, and despatched Lord Wimbledon, 
with a large fleet, to attempt the conquest and plunder of Cadiz. 
This expedition failing, through the incapacity of the commander, 
Charles found himself obliged to summon another parliament. This 
body at once proceeded to agitate grievances, deferred voting subsi- 
dies, and impeached the duke of Buckingham, charging him with 
venality, embezzlement, and other misdemeanours. He made a 
plausible defence, but before determination of the case, Charles 
again dissolved the parliament, declaring that he would give an 
account of his actions to God only, "whose immediate vicegerent" 
he claimed to be. 

He then commenced a course of arbitrary despotism; levying 
taxes without authority, and severely punishing those who refused 
compliance. Several persons of note having been thus committed 
to prison by the council without any cause assigned, the judges, on 
a writ of habeas corpus, decided that the king's authority was supe- 
rior to the law, thus totally abrogating the liberty of the subject. 

Buckingham, to gratify a private quarrel, now involved the 
nation in a war with France ; and with a hundred sail, set out in 
person for Eochelle, a strong Huguenot city. He showed much per- 




U ±1 A K L E S I K 1 i: G O T E N G L A N Jj . 



.VKr Ii K THF OTUIUNAT. rORTRArr r.T Vi"NDyKE, NOW PHESE:-1';ED in the MUbKIJil Or 

THE LOUYRE 



ENGLAND. Q.^Q 

sonal gallantry, but, owing to his want of generalsliip, was forced to 
retreat, with a loss of two thousand men. In this strait, parliament 
in 1628 was again summoned, and, as a conciliatory movement, the 
political prisoners, seventy-eight in number, were set at liberty. 
The}^ were all elected to the parliament, an assembly which was 
principally composed of men ardent for popular reform. The king 
told them plainly and haughtily, that he had only called them to 
vote supplies. They immediately complied, but annexed to the 
vote of subsidy four conditions, securing freedom from arbitrary 
arrest and royal taxation. For two months the matter lay pending, 
and then the celebrated "Petition of Eights," embracing nearly the 
same particulars, was passed, and received the royal assent. Having 
thus obtained the money which he sought, Charles prorogued the 
parliament, privately resolving, however, not to fulfil the conditions 
of his agreement. 

At this time the duke of Buckingham, who was at Portsmouth, 
preparing to take charge of a fresh expedition, perished by the hand 
of John Felton, a fanatical assassin, stimulated by private revenge and 
misguided zeal for his faction. The victim was only thirty-six, but had 
for a long time ruled England as completely as he had unworthily. 

Sir Thomas Wentworth, one of the most distinguished of the 
liberal members, was now gained over by the king. He received 
title and oflS.ce, and became the principal adviser of Charles, and the 
staunchest supporter of despotic measures. In 1629, parliament 
reassembled, and, after some preliminary disputes with the king. 
Sir John Eliot introduced a set of resolutions strongly denouncing 
Popery, and declaring any one who should levy or pay the obnox- 
ious claim of "tonnage and poundage" an enemy to the state. Great 
confusion ensued, and some violence, but the motion was received 
and passed with acclamation, and the house then adjourned, disap- 
pointing the king, who had given orders to break up their meeting 
b}'- force. Parliament was immediately dissolved, and Eliot, Avith 
other leaders of the opposition, was committed to the tower. All 
were heavily fined, and Eliot ended his days in prison. Charles now 
resolved to dispense altogether with parliaments, and a course of 
absolute despotism, destined to last* for twelve years, immediately 
commenced. 

Laud, the primate, a man of narrow views and a persecuting 
spirit, persuaded the king to enforce a great variety of religious 
usages and ceremonies which he prescribed. These so strongly 



g50 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

resembled those of tlie cliurcli of Eome, that the Pope even sent 
over an envoy, trusting that England was about to renew her submis- 
sion to the See. Severe punishments were inflicted on all who opposed 
these innovations. Cropping, branding, the pillory, imprisonment, 
and enormous fines were freely inflicted. The violence and tyranny 
of the Star Chamber, in these times, fully equalled that of the worst 
despots by whom England had ever been oppressed. 

The king, meanwhile, raised a large revenue by every species of 
exaction. Among other oppressions, he revived the odious monopo- 
lies and the forest laws, by which many persons were ruined. The 
large sums thus obtained, were applied to the support of government 
and the maintaining a brilliant and extravagant court. In spite, 
however, of many cases of individual hardship, and the tyranny 
exercised over conscience, the country in general flourished and 
prospered during this period — a result imputable, not to the sj^stem 
of government, but to the natural energy of the English people, 
stimulated by increasing civilization and new fields for enterprise. 
The tax of ship-money, levied upon the maritime parts of the coun- 
try, for supplying the expenses of a fleet, had been submitted to, 
though with reluctance ; but the king determined to collect it from 
all parts of the kingdom, and thus assure himself of a permanent 
revenue. This was resisted, and the memorable trial of John Hamp- 
den, in which the legality of this imposition was full}^ argued, occurred 
in 1637. It was adjudged lawful by a majority of one; but the 
assumption of absolute authority put forth by the king's council, 
and its confirmation by the judges, justly alarmed the people. The 
money, amounting to two hundred thousand pounds a-year, was paid 
with great dissatisfaction. 

Persecution for freedom of speech and action on religious matters 
had now become so outrageous, that the Puritans and patriots began 
to turn their eyes for refuge to the New World. In 1629 a charter 
had been obtained for a colony in Massachusetts. More than three 
hundred persons had already sailed, and numbers, seeking freedom 
of conscience, now followed them. In 1638, many persons of emi- 
nence resolved to quit their country; and it is said that Hampden 
and his relation, Oliver Cromwell, were actually on board a vessel, 
when, by the royal proclamation, they were prevented from sailing. 
In Scotland, great commotions had been excited by the determina- 
tion of the king and his advisers to insist on conformity to the 
English church. By the direction of Laud, many of his innovations 



ENGLAND. Q^l 

were ordered to be enforced ; but the people every Vv^bere received 
tbe English liturgy with resistance, and in some cases with violent 
disturbances. Their meetings to petition against the distastefal 
measures were declared treasonable, and both sides prepared for a 
resort to force. The "Solemn League and Covenant," denouncing 
the innovations, and pledging all its subscribers to resist them, was 
signed bj nearly the whole Scottish nation. A free parliament and 
church assembly was also demanded. The assembly met ; the king, 
dissembling, suddenly assented to all their demands ; and they pro- 
ceeded to overthrow the entire fabric of Scottish Episcopacy. 

Meanwhile, Charles had raised supplies by every means in his 
power, and advanced into Scotland, with a force of twenty-three 
thousand men. His resisting subjects, under Lesley, lay at Dunse- 
law; where their camp resounded from morning to night with 
sermons, prayer, and psalmody. Finding their force superior, and 
his own disheartened, the king again consented to negotiate ; a par- 
liament and an assembly were again summoned ; and the royal assent 
to the decision of the latter was again given. Nevertheless, by the 
advice of Laud and of Wentworth (now earl of Strafford,) the king 
resolved to make another attempt to subdue Scotland by force. 
Strafford, the lord-deputy, returned to Ireland, where he was abso- 
lute ruler, summoned his parliament, and obtained ample supplies 
of money and arms. Large sums were also voluntarily subscribed 
by the royalists of England. 

An English parliament was now finally summoned, in 1640, though 
the liberal and Puritan party were in the majority; and the king, 
telling them he wanted no advice or interference, demanded a sup- 
ply of money. They, however, headed by Pym, immediately 
commenced a debate upon the various grievances, and after a fruit- 
less attempt at adjustment, were dissolved by the king in three 
weeks. Hostilities with the Scotch were at once commenced ; and 
these, receiving forged letters of invitation, entered and took pos- 
session of the northern English counties — Charles being unable, 
from the want of funds and the disaffection of his troops, to oppose 
sufficient resistance. His power, which for twelve years had been 
exercised in such an absolute and tyrannical manner, was draw- 
ing to its close ; and in the same year, he found himself under the 
necessity of summoning another parliament. 

On the 3d of November, 1640, met the celebrated "Long Parlia- 
ment" — a body composed mostly of men of high character and 



g52 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

influence, and having a strong majority of liberal members. Their 
first act of importance was to impeach the powerful earl of Strafford 
of high treason. The judgment of Hampden was reversed; and 
one of the judges was arrested on the bench, and taken to prison as 
an example of terror to the rest. Laud also was impeached and 
committed to the tower; while many of the imprisoned Puritans 
were released and compensated. The king's methods of raising 
money were declared illegal ; and a bill, to which he was obliged to 
assent, was passed, providing for a triennial meeting of parliament. 
Petitions against Episcopacy poured in from all sides. 

In hopes to save Strafford, the king admitted a number of liberal 
lords into the privy council, and even entertained a scheme for form- 
ing a cabinet of the chief members of the opposition — which project 
falling through, increased their bitterness. The trial of the earl 
took place at "Westminster Hall, on the 22d of March, 1641. The 
favourite had every thing to apprehend, both from his own arbitrary 
practices and the temper of those opposed to him. Both as Presi- 
dent of the North, and Governor of Ireland, his rule, though vigorous 
and effective, had been arbitrary and tyrannical in the extreme. All 
his advice and all his political influence had been directed to the 
purpose of making Charles an absolute and independent monarch. 
For thirteen days, charges were exhibited against him, from which 
he defended himself with great manliness and eloquence. His acts 
certainly did not legally amount to treason, and the house resorted 
to the odious measure of passing a bill of attainder — a proceeding 
fully as arbitrary and tyrannical as any of which their prisoner had 
been guilty. The popular clamour for his execution was great ; and 
after some feeble and ineffectual attempts to save him, the king, to 
his eternal disgrace, signed a warrant for the execution of the man 
who had been his chief adviser, and whose crimes, if such they 
were, had been committed with his own sanction, and for his own 
advantage. "Put not your trust in princes," said the unfortunate 
man, on hearing of his betrayal. He died with the greatest courage 
and magnanimity, in the forty -ninth year of his age. 

The king next assented to a bill providing that parliament 
should not be dissolved or adjourned until the grievances in ques- 
tion were redressed. Feeling themselves more secure, they next 
voted a large sum to the Scots, and suppressed the court of Star 
Chamber and that of High Commission. Some supplies were 
granted ; but the king incurred renewed distrust by an attempt to 



ENGLAND. 



653 



induce the armj to declare for him. Parliament, however, from 
various causes, had lost much of its popularity. Church reform was 
again vehemently agitated without; and several measures were car- 
ried, attacking the prelates and enforcing Puritanism. The armies 
were disbanded, and Charles hastened to Scotland, where he 
-increased the popular distrust by attempting to seize the persons of 
several noblemen, against whom he had a charge of treason. 

Meanwhile, a terrible rebellion broke out in Ireland, where the 
native Catholics had long been jealous of the English heretical 
intruders. This discontent had been aggravated by a great usurp- 
ing seizure on the part of the crown, and by the severities of 
Strafford. On the 24th of October, 1641, the original inhabitants, 
by previous agreement, rose simiiltaneously in Ulster and other 
places, expelled the English settlers, and seized their goods. They 
soon proceeded further, and an indiscriminate massacre commenced, 
accompanied with circumstances of atrocious cruelty. The priests 
and friars, it is said, were the principal inciters of this outrage, in 
which many thousands perished, and vast numbers were driven 
from their homes. Charles, having done much to conciliate the 
leading Scottish nobles, returned to his capital, where, by a reaction 
of popular feeling, his reception was marked with much warmth 
and loyalty. The opposition in parliament, displeased at this, 
passed a "Pemonstrance," recapitulating all the illegal acts of the 
king, and laying the blame on the "malignant" party of royalists — 
Cromwell declaring that if it had not been carried, he and many 
others would have left England for ever. The bills which were pro- 
posed for the suppression of the Irish revolt, failed from the dispute 
between the king and parliament, as to the royal right of impress- 
ment ; the commons feared to intrust him with an army ; and the 
unfortunate Irish Protestants were sacrificed to the jealousy of these 
conflicting interests. 

A bill, depriving the bishops of their votes in the House of Lords, 
was next proposed, and was accompanied with such popular vio- 
lence, stimulated by the opposition party, that they were unable to 
attend parliament, and sent in a protest against all acts done in 
their absence. For this they were impeached and committed to the 
tower. Quarrels between the citizens and the king's guard increased, 
and blood was shed in some of these encounters. 

In January, 1642, the king committed a piece of violence and 
im.prudence that rendered the breach irreparable. Having accused 



654 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

five members of the House of Commons, including Pym and Hamp- 
den, of treason, he went down to the house in person, attended by 
a numerous guard, for the purpose of seizing them. It is said 
that he was stimulated to this rash step by the haughty queen, who 
told him to go and "pull these rogues out by the ears/' or never to 
see her more. Being warned beforehand, they escaped; the com- 
mons were furious at this invasion of their privileges; and the 
whole city took up arms, under the greatest excitement. Parlia- 
ment dissolved for the present, averring themselves unsafe; and a 
committee was appointed to inquire into all the particulars. The 
king, beset with tumultuary petitioners, retired to Hampton court, at 
some distance from London. The house shortly met, and the five 
members, conducted by an immense procession, and receiving the 
highest honours, resumed their seats. Four thousand men on horse- 
back, from Hampden's shire, came to complain of his accusation, and 
to proffer their services for the popular cause. The tower, garrisoned 
by the king's men, was blockaded by order of the parliament, and 
other hostile measures were taken — instigated, doubtless, by a knowl- 
edge of the king's designs, betrayed by a member of his household. 
Parliament, which had long been anxious to get the entire control 
of the military force, now passed an act for putting all forts, castles, 
and other strong places, into the hands of such officers as they could 
confide in. This, with other measures, was sent to the lords, backed 
by the petitions of immense numbers of poor people, porters, Avomen, 
and others, threatening, if refused, to take the law into their own 
hands. The queen was now despatched to Holland, with the crown 
jewels, to provide arms and ammunition for the coming contest. 
An irreconcilable dispute ensued, as to whether the power of com- 
mand should be first vested in the king, without which he abso- 
lutely refused to sign the bill. In the civil war which was now 
approaching, the parliament were by no means free from blame. 
They had, in many instances, violated the constitution and the royal 
prerogative ; they had imprisoned (in one case for life) those who 
spoke violently against their proceedings ; and had intimidated the 
minority of their own body, by committing them to the tower, on 
the least license of debate. They had, moreover, encouraged riotous 
mobs and petitions on their own side, while promptly suppressing 
those of the royalists. Their only excuse for these acts may be 
found in the fact, that they were dealing with a man utterly faith- 
less, and determined to crush them on the first opportunity ; that it 



ENGLAND. 



655 



was a struggle for life or death; and that, in their situation, thej 
dared not stand upon abstract justice, or even allow fair play to 
their opponent. The point of open rupture was their demand and 
his refusal to surrender an undoubted legal authority over the troops. 

The nobility and gentry of the north flocked around him, and he 
assumed a more elevated tone. With a few hundred attendants he 
went to Hull, for the purpose of securing the magazine ; but Hotham, 
the governor, by order of parliament, refused to admit him. By 
the same authority, the stores were soon after removed to London. 
Both sides Avere now busy in enlisting and disciplining troops. 
Before actual hostilities, parliament sent the king an ultimatum of 
nineteen articles, putting all power into their own hands, and com- 
pletely changing the constitution. He indignantly refused consent, 
and nine of the lords who had joined him Avere impeached. With 
four thousand men he made an unsuccessful demonstration against 
Hull, but was compelled to retire. Parliament voted to levy a large 
army; and by loans and voluntary contributions, they raised abund- 
ant supplies. The country was now every where divided against 
itself, parliament holding nearly all the strong places and magazines, 
and being supported by the inhabitants of most of the towns; while 
the great body of nobility and gentry, much of the rural population, 
and all the Catholics, espoused the cause of the king. But every 
county, town, and village was divided; and different members of 
the same family might often be found adhering to opposite sides. 

The earl of Essex was appointed to the command of the parlia- 
mentary army — a large and motley array, many of them, as Crom- 
well said, "decayed servingmen and tapsters, and such kind of fel- 
lows." His own regiment, composed of substantial countrymen, 
formed a notable exception. Goring, the governor of Portsmouth, 
having declared for the king, a force was sent against him by par- 
liament. Charles hereupon proclaimed Essex and his followers 
traitors, and summoned all loyal subjects to meet him in arms at 
Nottingham on the 25th of August, (1642). From this place he 
moved on that day with a small force, which, by the time he arrived 
at Shrewsbury, amounted to eighteen thousand men. He was also 
joined by his nephews, the Princes Rupert and Maurice, who each 
received important commands. Goring at Portsmouth, and the 
marquis of Hertford, in the West, had been overcome by the par- 
liamentary forces; and on the 23d of October, the two armies, 
commanded by the king and Essex, engaged at Edgehill, a bleak 



656 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

eminence overlooking the Yale of ttie Red Horse. For the first 
time since the days of Richard III., Englishmen now engaged in 
battle among themselves. Rupert making a fiery charge, scattered 
the force opposed to him; but pursuing them too far, was unable to 
return in time to render effectual assistance to the king. Night ter- 
minated the conflict, two thousand having been slain, of whom 
nearly an equal number belonged to either side. Both, claimed the 
victory, but the real advantage lay with the king, who, after some 
negotiation, marched to Oxford, and passed the winter there. In 
January, a committee from London waited on him with fourteen 
unreasonable propositions, to which he replied by others quite as 
impracticable. The next month the queen retvirned, having nar- 
rowly escaped the violence of the enemy with her life, and was 
impeached of high treason by the parliament. 

The advantage in various local contests had been chiefly on the 
side of the royalists ; but parliament disavowed all treaties or truces 
which the different factions had concluded, and Essex, with fifteen 
thousand men, sat down before Reading, which surrendered on 
honourable conditions. Here he remained, detained by disease and 
desertion among his troops. 

A plot in London for the king's benefit, and another in Bristol, 
were detected by the commons, and several persons of eminence 
were hanged— the poet Waller, who was engaged in the former, 
basely betraying his associates. Stringent measures followed ; but 
the parliamentary army, under their general. Waller, after some 
indecisive engagements, sustained a severe defeat near Devizes, 
(13 th July, 1643). The queen, with a large reinforcement of troops 
and military stores, joined her husband, and the royal cause, encour- 
aged by several victories, began to flourish. Rupert, assisted by 
Colonel Hurry, a deserter from the parliamentary army, sallying fi'om 
Oxford, had fallen upon the quarters of Essex, near that town, and 
had defeated or captured several regiments. In the action which 
ensued during their return, the gallant and patriotic Hampden was 
mortally wounded, and died in a few days. His death was an irrep- 
arable loss to England; for he was respected by both sides, and 
might probably by his mediation have averted the calamitous scenes 
which followed. On the 27th of July, Rupert took the town of 
Bristol, and Prince Maurice about the same time reduced the most 
of Devonshire. Essex had retired in discomfiture to Kingston. 

The affairs of parliament now began to look desperate, and they 



ENGLAND. 657 

sent a commission to Scotland, to entreat assistance. London was 
also intrenched; but it seems probable tbat the king might have 
marched thither, and perhaps ended the war at once. He stopped 
to lay siege to Gloucester, which soon after was relieved by Essex, 
with a force of fifteen thousand men. The latter wished to avoid 
an engagement, but was furiously attacked by Rupert with five 
thousand horse; and the next day a general action took place near 
Newbury. The contest lasted until night, with great loss to the 
royalists, the gallant and patriotic earl of Falkland being among the 
slain. Essex returned to London, and the king again wintered at 
Oxford. During the siege, several nobles had repaired from London 
to the king; but with his usual ill-judgment, he received them 
coldly, and they were soon again found in the ranks of the opposi- 
tion. He also did great injury to his cause by making a private 
peace with the rebellious Irish, receiving a large sum from them, 
and ordering the regiments stationed there to return to England. 

A solemn league and covenant had now been entered into with 
the Scots, by which the latter were to furnish twenty-one thousand 
men, and a committee from both nations was to sit at London, and 
carry on the war.. A new "Great Seal" was put in commission, 
bearing the impress of the parliament in session. Soon after these 
events, died the celebrated John Pym, chief leader and prompter 
of the opposition — a man of great talent and republican principles, 
but somewhat implicated in the more questionable transactions of 
his party. To satisfy the popular affection for parliaments, Charles 
summoned one on his own account, which met at Oxford in January, 
1644. The rival body at Westminster, however, refused to listen to 
any terms of accommodation. Both parties raised money by every 
means in their power ; by forced and voluntary loans, taxes, excises, 
and the sequestration or plunder of such property of their opponents 
as could be reached. The Irish troops, which arrived and joined a 
detachment of the king's forces, at first gained some advantages, 
but were finally defeated, with great loss, by Fairfax and Brereton. 
The royal forces, under the earl of Brentford and Hopton, were 
also defeated by Waller. The Scots, under the earl of Leven, 
advanced into England, and effecting a union with their allies, under 
Fairfax, Lord Kimbolton, and Cromwell, laid siege to York, which 
was defended by the earl of Newcastle. Charles, on the approach 
of Essex and Waller, quitted Oxford, but afterwards routed the 
latter near Bunbury, and forced him to retreat. Rupert, with twenty 
42 



g58 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

thousand men, marched to the relief of York, which was hard 
pressed; and, passing the enemy, entered the city. Having received 
positive orders from tlie king to engage the besiegers, he marched 
out the next day, (July 2cl,) and the two armies, each about twenty- 
five thousand in number, encountered on Marston Moor. Eupert, 
with his usual impetuous valour, charged the right wing of the 
enemy, and drove them from the field. The attack on the centre 
was also successful, and the Scots fled in confusion; but Cromwell, 
who commanded the other wing, defeated his opponents. Sir 
Thomas Fairfax, rallying his troops, joined him; tViey took the 
royalists in the flank; and the battle ended by a complete victory 
of the parliamentary army. Four thousand were slain, the greater 
part royalists; fifteen hundred of them were made prisoners, and 
all their artillery and baggage was taken. Rupert retired to the 
West, and Newcastle, with other lords, betook himself to the conti- 
nent. York, surrendered, and the Scots, moving homewards, took 
Newcastle by storm. In the west of England, however, the royal 
cause was more fortunate; and Essex, surrounded in Cornwall by 
the forces of Prince Maurice, left his army, which soon was obliged 
to surrender. An indecisive action with the parliamentary forces, 
under Waller and the earl of Manchester, during which Charles 
fled from the field, terminated the campaign. 

The revolutionary party was now much divided, especially by 
religious schisms. Cromwell, an independent in religion and a 
republican in politics, was embroiled with some of the leaders of 
rank on the parliamentary side. An ordinance was passed, requir- 
ing members of either house to lay down their commands and 
offices. The army was at the same time remodelled; Sir Thomas 
Fairfax being made commander-in-chief (1645). 

The trial of Archbishop Laud, accused of attempting to intro- 
duce popery and arbitrary power, had been for a long time on hand ; 
Prynne, whose ears had twice been cut off" during the late tyranny, 
being one of the principal conductors of the proceedings against 
him. The accused primate made an excellent defence, and a con- 
viction of treason being found impossible, an attainder was passed. 
He was beheaded on Tower Hill, in the seventy-second year of his 
age, dying with all that constancy and courage which has usually 
distinguished the execution of religious or political martyrs. 

Through the Scottish influence, a form of worship similar to the 
Presbyterian was introduced, with penalties provided for those who 




OLIVER CROMWELL,, 



LORD PROTECTOR OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF EM 



This singular man, perhaps the most original character in British history, wns 
horn in moderate circumstances, at Huntingdon, on the 25th of April, 1599 
Both in parliament and at the head of the revolutionary forces, he played a 
most conspicuous part against Charles I. and the loyalist party. Afber the exe- 
cution of the king, he attained, under the title of "Protector," the actiia] 
sovereignty of the three kingdoms, and, during the remainder of his life, held 
the government -with a firm and prudent hand. His character appears to have 
heen composed of an extraordinary mix ture of piety, courage, amhition, hypo- 
crisy, remorselessness, and love of country. He expired Septemher 3d, 1658, 
worn out -with the cares of war and of empire. 



ENGLAND. 



659 



adhered to tlie Episcopal rites. Nearly two thousand clergymen 
and collegiate officers were, at the same time, ejected from their liv- 
ings. On the 20th of January, by mutual agreement, commissioners 
on both sides of the civil contest met at Uxbridge, for the purpose 
of discussing the subjects in dispute; but after more than a month's 
debate, were unable to agree upon terms. The king, always san- 
guine, was rendered more confident of the final restoration of his 
full power by the late successes of the earl of Montrose. That 
devoted partisan, with a force of Irish and Highlanders, had gained 
a brilliant series of victories in Scotland, but finally, overpowered 
by numbers, was compelled to retreat into the mountains. On the 
9th of May, Charles, with ten thousand men, took the field, the 
enemy retiring before him. He stormed and plundered Leicester ; 
but on the 13th, Fairfax, with the parliamentary army, engaged 
him near the village of Naseby. Rupert, as usual, charged success- 
fully, but, through mismanagement, threw away the advantage; 
whereas Cromwell, who commanded the right wing, having broken 
the opposing ranks, fell upon the rear of the king's centre, and decided 
the day. After an obstinate and bravely-contested action, during 
which the leaders on both sides distinguished themselves, Charles 
was compelled to withdraw from the field. 

The parliament gained an important prize in his private letters, 
which they shortly afterwards published. These fully showed his 
insincerity in the late negotiations, and his application for assistance 
to foreign powers and to Ireland. 

He now began to expect nothing but final ruin; and every day 
brought tidings of the surrender of some royal stronghold; yet he 
would not consent to any other terms than those which he had 
offered at Uxbridge. After ravaging the eastern counties, he again 
took refuge in Oxford, where he was greatly encouraged by news 
of the fresh and brilliant successes of Montrose. The earl, breaking 
from the mountains with a force of six thousand men, had defeated 
the Scottish army with terrible slaughter ; great part of the country 
submitted to him ; and Lesley, with his forces in England, was com- 
pelled to return in haste to his own country. With five thousand 
men, the king again sallied forth from Oxford, but after some suc- 
cesses, was defeated with loss by General Poynts, and finally 
returned with only five hundred of his followers. Montrose, too, 
after a gallant defence, had been also overcome by numbers, and 
was again forced to retire into the Highlands. The king, meanwhile, 



QQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

had been in treaty witli the Irish Catholics, who, in consideration 
of religious toleration, engaged to supply him liberally with men 
and money ; but the misfortunes of the royal cause in England pre- 
vented any effectual aid. The whole south and west of England 
had been reduced to submission ; and many strongholds, some of 
which had held out for years, were reduced, one after the other. 
The parliamentary army, new-modelled by Cromwell and other 
able commanders, had become, for its numbers, the most irresistible 
which the world has ever seen. The remarkable men who com- 
posed it, were mostly zealous Puritans, men of sober life, but filled 
with political and religious enthusiasm, fighting alike with the 
zeal of patriots and fanatics. Nevertheless, Charles kept up separate 
negotiations with the Scots, the Independents, and the Presbyte- 
rians — thinking, and justly, that his name and party, joined to either 
of these, would secure it a preponderance. As the parliamentary 
forces closed around Oxford, he left that city in disguise, and trav- 
elled into Norfolk, sending an emissary to negotiate terms with the 
Scots. They agreed to receive the king, and, it would appear, held 
out hopes of assistance never intended to be realized. He repaired 
to their camp at Newcastle, on the 5th of May, 1646, and soon 
found himself held in a kind of honourable imprisonment. He 
there rejected further propositions from his revolted subjects, the 
same in effect which had been debated before. On the 1st of Feb- 
ruary, 1647, the Scots surrendered him to the parliamentary com- 
missioners, four hundred thousand pounds having been voted them 
for their services. This has given rise to the accusation, which seems 
not entirely unfounded, that they delivered him up to secure the 
payment of their arrears. The civil war, which had endured nearly 
four years, was now at an end. The king was in the hands of his 
enemies, and the last strongholds of his party soon surrendered. 
Montrose, by the command of his master, laid down his arms, and 
retired to the Continent. Dublin, and other Irish towns, with their 
garrisons, were surrendered by Ormond, the lord lieutenant. The 
contest, carried on so long, and with such bravery on both sides, 
was disgraced by few of those excesses (either during its continu- 
ance or after the final triumph) which commonly distinguish a 
social war. 

The Presbyterian influence was predominant in parliament, but 
the Independents controlled the army; and, moved by Cromwell, 
now their leading adviser, they stubbornly refiised agreement to the 



ENGLAND. 



661 



schemes in agitation for their disbandment, or employment in Ire- 
land, Their arrearages of pay, and certain other satisfactions, were 
peremptoril}'- demanded. At length, parliament, alarmed at the atti- 
tude of their powerful and dangerous servants, issued positive 
orders to disband them.. To this they replied by seizing the king's 
person, and conducting him to Newmarket — a step not disagreeable 
to Charles, who was encouraged (perhaps by Cromwell, who had 
secretly planned this movement) with the hope of receiving the sup- 
port of the soldiers. Parliament recalled their order, but in vain. 
The army marched near London, and the legislative body, overawed, 
sought to appease it; eleven of the most obnoxious members being 
compelled to seek a sort of voluntary exile. Their prisoner was 
treated with great respect and indulgence. 

Fairfax, the parliamentary general, was entirely under the control 
of Cromwell and his son-in-law, Ireton, who both really entertained 
designs of restoring the royal authority ; but Charles, elated by a 
belief that the people were moving in his favour, refused "Pro- 
posals" from the army, far more reasonable than any which had yet 
been offered him. Parliament, urged by the citizens, at last pre- 
pared for resistance, and endeavoured to levy a force more devoted 
to their interests. They were, nevertheless, compelled, in effect, to 
put the city into the hands of the discontented troops. 

Meanwhile, the king enjoyed great liberty, on his parole, and had 
frequent interviews with Cromwell. The latter, with Ireton, earn- 
estly sought to effect an accommodation, on the basis of the late 
"Proposals" of the army, but met with such opposition, both in 
the house and army, especially from the "levellers," that they could 
not carry out their views. It is said that, in event of success, 
Cromwell was to have been made an earl, and, with Ireton, held 
certain important oflEices. Charles, however, meanwhile, was in 
secret treaty with the Scots, and it is said that Cromwell intercepted 
a letter to the queen, declaring his intention of hanging his present 
allies, whenever he should recover his power. The anti-royal party, 
moreover, was too strong, and a plot was formed, it is said, by the 
levellers, to get possession of the king's person. Charles, on learn- 
ing this, (probably from Cromwell, who desired to save him,) pri- 
vately escaped, and repaired to Sussex. Thence, intending to escape 
to the Continent, he betook himself to the Isle of Wight, where 
Hammond, the parliamentary governor, received him honourably, 
and permitted him to go at large. 



652 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. 

Cromwell, meanwhile, had suppressed a dangerous mutiny 
among the troops, and had executed one of the ringleaders. Per- 
ceiving, however, the fixed determination of the army to destroy 
the king, he determined to preserve his popularity by joining their 
party ; at the same time, warning Charles to escape as soon as pos- 
sible. The latter, however, was in treaty with the Scots; and, 
rejecting terms again offered by the parliament, entered into a pri- 
vate agreement with the Scottish commissioners. On learning this, 
Hammond immediately put him in greater security, and thus frus- 
trated all the measures which were attempted for his escape. Par- 
liament immediately (January, 1648.) passed resolutions to use no 
further negotiation with him ; and made it high treason for any one 
to communicate with him without their permission. The great 
body of the people, though in favour of royalty and the existing 
constitution, were held in check by the army, which was mostly 
opposed to monarchy as a matter of religion. 

The Scottish royalists, in pursuance of their agreement, attempted 
to raise forces, but found much difficulty, from the opposition of the 
clergy, who were dissatisfied that the Presbytery was not made 
absolutely compulsive on the English. The English partisans of 
the royal cause, tired of waiting, took up arms prematurely, and 
after a few successes, were defeated by Fairfax and Cromwell. The 
Scots, with fourteen thousand men, finally entered the kingdom. 
Sir Marmaduke Langdale, with four thousand men, engaged the 
parliamentary army at Preston, and fought with such intrepidity, 
that had he been supported by his Scottish allies, he would vindoubt- 
edly have defeated them. But the latter concluded a series of 
feeble movements by a retreat on this occasion ; their infantry was 
forced to surrender ; and the English royalists dispersed. Colches- 
ter, after a gallant defence of three months, was taken by Fairfax, 
and several eminent royalists were executed by sentence of a court 
martial. The prince of Wales, with nineteen ships, sailed from 
Holland to the Downs, and for some time negotiated with parlia- 
ment ; but was unable to bring the enemy 's fleet to an engagement, 
and was finally compelled to return by the want of provisions. 
Parliament, alarmed at the feeling in the army, opened fresh com- 
munication with the king; but nothing was agreed on — Charles 
firmly refusing to abolish the Episcopal church, or to surrender his 
friends to their vengeance. Petitions for a republic in its fullest 
forms were presented to parliament; and in some, especially from 



ENGLAND 663 

the Independents, tlie king's punishment was strongly suggested. 
Finally, a large "Remonstrance" came from the army, demanding 
the same things in explicit terms. It was rejected, but the king, in 
some alarm, yielded to the demands of parliament, though only 
ostensibly. He was then again conveyed to Carisbrooke castle, in 
the Isle of Wight. Here he might have escaped, but refused to 
break his parole. He was soon after seized by a detachment of the 
soldiers, and confined in Hurst castle, on a rock in the sea. The 
army immediately marched to London, and there took up their 
quarters. Parliament assumed a firm position, and voted, by a large 
majority, that the king's concessions were sufficient. But on the 
following day, December 6th, 1648, two regiments came to the 
house, and Colonel Pride, the commander of them, forcibly detained 
all members opposed to the will of the army. Some were imprisoned, 
and others excluded from the house, which was thus reduced to 
about fifty members, and was afterwards commonly styled the Rump 
Parliament. Cromwell had been absent, but on his return approved 
of the proceeding. 

Every thing was now done according to the will of the soldiery, 
the real arbiters of the fate of the kingdom. The miserable rem- 
nant of a parliament tried in vain to throw the responsibility of the 
king's arraignment upon their masters, the army ; but were com- 
pelled to continue their work. On the 1st of January, 1649, they 
voted it treason in a king of England to levy war against "the par- 
liament and people; and sent an ordinance for the king's trial to the 
lords. The latter, only sixteen in number, unanimously rejected 
it, and the commons, voting their own house the supreme authority 
of the nation, passed the ordinance themselves. An hundred and 
thirty-five persons, members, lawyers, oflicers of the army, and citi- 
zens, were appointed as a court; and on the 20th, about seventy of 
them attended at Westminster Hall, where the proceedings were 
opened with considerable state and formality. An accusation was 
publicly read, charging the king with attempting to "rule according 
to his will," with traitorously levying war against the people and 
parliament, enumerating the various battles in which he had been 
present, and finally impeaching him as "a tyrant, traitor, murderer, 
and a public and implacable enemy to the Commonwealth of Eng- 
land." He smiled on hearing these abusive epithets, and answered 
by demanding their authority for these proceedings, and refusing to 
acknowledge the legality of his arraignment. The trial lasted several 



654 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

days, Charles still denying botli tlie authority of the court and the 
crimes alleged against him ; and reasonably asserting that their pro- 
ceeding was a tyrannical exertion of "power without law," On the 
27th, the king waived all further defence, seeing that it was useless. 
He was found guilty, and sentence of death was passed against him by 
a unanimous vote of all present, sixty-seven in number. He 
was refused liberty of speech, and various insults were offered 
him on his way back, which he bore with much patience and kingly 
magnanimity. 

On the next day, a proposal was made to him by some of the 
principal persons in the army and parliament, that his life and crown 
should be secured to him on certain conditions, which would place 
almost entire power in their hands and those of the army. This, 
to his honour, he indignantly rejected. Ambassadors sent from 
Holland interceded for him to no effect, and a warrant for his execu- 
tion was signed by fifty -nine of the commissioners. It is said that 
Cromwell, with that strange buffoonery which he would sometimes 
mix with the most serious business, marked one of his fellow-judges 
in the face with the pen which signed his name, and received the 
same compliment in return. 

On the 30th of January, the king, who had throughout evinced 
the highest calmness and self-possession, was conducted through a 
window of the palace at Whitehall, upon a scaffold built in front of 
it. He made an address, in vindication of his career, but admitted 
that he suffered justly for having consented to the execution of 
Strafford. He also declared that he died a martyr to the rights of 
the people. Having performed his devotions, he said to the attend- 
ing clergyman, "Remember," knelt down, and was beheaded at one 
blow by a masked executioner. A dismal groan broke forth from 
the multitude assembled before the scaffold, and many pressed for- 
ward to dip their handkerchiefs in his blood. Charles Stuart died 
in the forty-ninth 3'ear of his age, and in the twenty-fourth of a 
reign which, for several years, had been merely nominal. His pri- 
vate morality and domestic virtues have, in the eyes of many, 
thrown a mantle over the crimes and errors of his political career. 
He was bigoted, despotic, and insincere; and had doubtless forfeited 
his throne by many acts of injustice and oppression. Still, his exe- 
cution was a violent and unlawful procedure, wholly discountenanced 
by most of the English people. It was the work of men equally 
unprincipled with himself, and especially of a body of military 



ENGLAND. g(55 

officers, who felt insecure so long as any one was alive who could 
call them to account for their share in the revolution. Its value, 
however, as an example to arbitrary rulers, has been great; being 
the first instance in which a king had been tried and executed by 
his own subjects for offences against them. The Lords Hamilton, 
Holland, and Capel were beheaded a few days afterwards. 



THE COMMONWEALTH. 

Immediately after the execution of Charles, the office of king 
and the House of Peers were abolished by the commons, and a new 
Council of State, consisting of forty-five members, was chosen for 
the executive. Bradshaw, who had presided at the trial, was made 
president of it, and the illustrious Milton was Latin secretary. By 
new elections, and the readmission of certain members, parliament 
was increased to about an hundred and fifty in number. The great 
majority of the people, especially the Royalists and Presbyterians, 
were opposed to the new government; but it was supported by the 
zealous Independents, and especially by an army ably officered, and 
forty thousand strong. The levellers, however, both in the army 
and elsewhere, poured in petitions for yet further changes; formi- 
dable mutinies broke out, but were suppressed by the energy of 
Cromwell, who defeated the malcontents, and exec^ited a number 
of them. 

When the news of the king's execution reached Scotland, the 
parliament of that nation forthwith proclaimed the prince of Wales, 
under the title of Charles II., on condition of his adhering to the 
covenant. The prince, who was at the Hague, gave unsatisfactory 
ansAvers, hoping much from Montrose, who, with a few hundred 
adventurers, had landed in the North. He was, however, defeated, 
and captured by his enemies, the Presbyterian party, and was hanged 
with much ignominy at Edinburgh. He perished in the thirty-ninth 
year of his age, having won a wide renown for valour and loyalty, 



QQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

thougli occasionally stained witli cruelty. Other royalists of distinc- 
tion shared a similar fate. Charles, on learning the event, publicly 
declared his approval of the fate of his devoted follower, and at 
once closed with the conditions of the Scots. He landed in their 
country, where his insincerity was sufficiently punished in the miser- 
able treatment he received. Though allowed the title and forms of 
roj^alty, he was constantly watched; and was harassed almost to 
death by the interminable prayers and sermons of the clergy, 
reflecting on the guilt of his father, the idolatry of his mother, (a 
Catholic,) and especially on any levity of his own. 

In Ireland, the royalists, assisted by the Scottish army, had gained 
considerable successes; and Cromwell and Ireton, with other able 
officers, were sent over. Their enemies had sustained a severe 
reverse already; and, two weeks after his arrival, Cromwell stormed 
the town of Drogheda, put the garrison, upwards of two thousand, 
to the sword, and massacred a great number of the defenceless 
inhabitants. "Their friars and priests," he remarks in his despatch, 
" were knocked on the head promiscuously with the others." In 
the church alone, one thousand of the unfortunate people were 
massacred. At Wexford, which he took shortly afterwards, similar 
atrocities were perpetrated; three hundred women, who had gath- 
ered around the great cross, as some protection, being all murdered 
together. The unhappy prisoners were shipped as slaves to the 
colonies. By these and similar exhibitions of courage and ferocity, 
he took many strongholds, and departed in May, 1650, leaving the 
command to Ireton. 

Fairfax resigned his command, and Cromwell was appointed by 
parliament captain-general of all forces in the commonwealth. On 
the 22d of July, he marched into Scotland with sixteen thousand 
veteran soldiers. His opponents, occupying favourable positions, 
might have repulsed him; but were embarrassed by the fanatical 
zeal of the clergy, who insisted that all " malignants " should be 
dismissed from the army, that it might be composed entirely of 
" saints." The army, thus purified, under Lesley, engaged the invader 
at Dunbar, and was entirely defeated, with a loss of three thousand 
slain, ten thousand prisoners, and all their artillery and baggage. 
The whole country south of the Forth submitted to the conqueror. 
The defeated nation now gladly allowed the proscribed malignants 
to enlist in their behalf; Charles was crowned at Scone on the 1st of 
January, 1651, and by great exertions an army of twenty thousand 



ENGLAND. QQ'J 

men was got together under arms at Stirling. Cromwell, however, 
had pushed his conquests so rapidly, that their communication with 
the North was entirely cut off, and Charles determined on the des- 
perate step of a march into England. With fourteen thousand men, 
he entered Carlisle; and marching rapidly to Worcester, was there 
solemnly proclaimed. Few, however, joined his standard; and the 
parliament, recovering from the alarm into which they had been 
thrown, proclaimed all his abettors guilty of high treason, and 
ordered the militia to Worcester. Cromwell himself arriving, found 
himself at the head of thirty thousand men, and speedily engaged 
the Scottish army, consisting of less than half that number. They 
fought for five hours with great gallantry, but were overpowered by 
numbers, and driven into the city. Cromwell stormed the fort, put 
its garrison of fifteen hundred to the sword, and turned its guns upon 
the city. This victory (which Cromwell called his "crowning mercy") 
was overwhelming' — three thousand of the Scots being slain, and 
nearly all the others made prisoners. Several distinguished leaders 
were executed, and the prisoners were barbarously sent to the plant- 
ations as slaves — a piece of cruelty first commenced by the parlia- 
ment, and afterwards continued by the kings. Large estates and 
honours were bestowed on the victorious general and his officers. 

The defeated prince, flying in disguise, met with many narrow 
escapes and strange adventures. At one time, surrounded by ene- 
mies, he was compelled to secrete himself among the boughs of a 
tree, afterwards called, from this circumstance, the "Royal Oak," and 
greatly venerated by all loyal subjects. He finally escaped to Nor- 
mandy, after having been assisted or recognised by more than forty 
persons, not one of whom betrayed him. 

Scotland now entirely submitted, and a commission was appointed 
by the English parliament to regulate its affairs. A union was pro- 
jected; but before the terms were settled, parliament itself had fallen, 
and Scotland remained a conquered country, secured by a chain of 
new fortresses. Ireton, after subduing nearly all Ireland, died of 
the plague, and Ludlow completed its subjugation. A commission 
was appointed to settle its affairs, and all who had been opposed to 
parliament were punished in the severest manner. Two hundred, 
many of them people of rank, were executed, and ruinous forfeit- 
ures transferred a great part of the landed property to the soldiers 
of Cromwell, and to other adventurers. The natives, driven from 
their possessions, became formidable by private robbery and violence. 



668 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

The Dutch, aggrieved by several acts of hostility, had fitted out 
a large fleet, and their admiral, Van Tromp, had fought an indeci- 
sive action with the English commander, Blake. War was soon 
after declared by the parliament, and the Dutch commander's fleet, 
being dispersed by a storm, lost five of its ships to the English. 
De Witt and De Euyter, who succeeded him, fought other naval 
battles without any decisive result. Van Tromp, being restored to 
his command, sailed with seventy ships to the Downs, and engaged 
Admiral Blake, who had only half that number. They fought an 
entire day, when the English admiral, who had lost five ships, ran 
np the river, and Van Tromp, with a broom at his mast-head, for 
some time insultingly swept the English channel. This disgrace 
was, however, speedily avenged. With seventy sail, and large 
reinforcements of marines, Blake again encountered him on the 
18th of Februar}?-, 1653, while convoying a fleet of merchantmen; 
and, in an action of three days, the Dutch lost thirty-five vessels, 
nine of them ships of war. 

The Long Parliament, which had sat for twelve years, and which 
had degenerated into a mere faction of selfish men, seeking their 
own interests, was near its end. Aware of the ambition of Crom- 
well, they commenced disbanding the army, but were checked by a 
forcible petition, aiming at their own authority. During the win- 
ter of 1652-3, the general had carefully fomented the discontent 
among his ofiicers, representing the greediness of the parliament, 
and its neglect of their interests. Finally, on the 20th of October, 
as the house was about to pass a bill thwarting his wishes, he went 
down to them with a party of soldiers, whom he left in the lobby. 
As the speaker was putting the question, he arose and commenced 
a speech, warming as he proceeded. Accusing them of injustice, 
self-interest, and other faults, he cried, "The Lord has done with you, 
and chosen other instruments for carrying on his work that are 
more worthy." A short altercation ensued; he stamped his foot, 
and the soldiers entered. After abusing several of the members 
personally, and accusing them of drunkenness, debauchery, &c., he 
cleared the house of them, ordering "that fool's bawble," the mace, 
to be carried ofP. No effective resistance was made by any one, 
and this celebrated body was dispersed without the least sympathy 
from the nation which it had latterly tyrannized over and plundered. 



ENGLAND. QQQ 



■U Jb (JU bu uj iL Lu iXJ uu 6 t6u> Of l6w 



THE PROTECTORATE, ETC. 

By agreement of Cromwell and the leading officers, a new council 
of state was appointed, consisting of thirteen members, in imitation 
of Christ and tlie apostles — nine of them, Cromwell included, being 
officers. He perceived, however, that something in the form of a 
parliament must be convoked to satisfy the people, and accordingly 
there met at Whitehall an hundred and twenty persons, selected by 
the council from a number chosen by the congregational churches. 
In a "grave, seasonable, and Christian speech," he informed them 
that the reign of Christ would, he supposed, commence from that 
date, and gave them a written authority to act for fifteen months. 
This assembly, called Barebone's Parliament, (from Praise God 
Barebone, a member,) was an honest but wrong-headed set of men, 
who commenced the necessary work of reform with injudicious 
alacrity. Besides useful enactments for the abolishment of sinecures, 
for economy, for education, &c., they at once fell upon the system 
of law, which they proposed to abolish entirely, and to substitute a 
kind of pocket code, accessible to all — a scheme, from the diversity 
and magnitude of the subject, utterly impracticable. They also 
attacked the right of presentation to livings, and thus brought the 
whole bar, the clergy, and the aristocracy in opposition to them. 
Cromwell, seeing their want of judgment, and their feeble position, 
induced a considerable portion to retire ; and the remainder were 
unceremoniously turned out, like the Long Parliament, by a file of 
soldiers. Nearly all gave in their resignations, and the council 
forthwith adopted a new constitution, conferring upon Cromwell an 
authority altogether regal. 

On the 16th of December, 1653, he was installed with great state 
at Westminster in the office of "Protector of the Commonwealth," 
which he accepted with feigned reluctance. By the new instrument 
he Avas to hold the supreme authority, assisted by a council, and to 
exercise all the functions of royalty. A parliament was to be sum- 
moned once in three years, and, for five months, was not to be dis- 
solved, except by its own consent. Provision was made against 



670 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

royalists, Catholics, and other enemies of the commonwealth. This 
piece of usurpation was probably a fortunate thing for the nation, 
which might otherwise have fallen from one state of anarchy into 
another. The protector took advantage of the authority placed in 
his hands until the meeting of parliament, to decree an ordinance 
of union with Scotland, and other important matters. A conspiracy 
of the royalists for his assassination was detected, and several of the 
contrivers were executed. 

Success had meanwhile attended the British arms. On the 2d of 
June, the Dutch fleet of an hundred sail, commanded by Tromp, 
De Ruyter, and others, fell in with that of the English, of equal 
force, under Greneral Monk, Dean, Penn, and Lawson. After an 
action of an entire day, the English fleet, reinforced by Blake, 
gained the victory with the loss of a single ship, while their oppo- 
nents, whose vessels were mostly smaller, lost twenty-one. In an 
another action, with the same force, under Monk and Tromp, the 
latter, after a long and doubtful contest, was again defeated, and fell 
in the fight. Peace was declared in 1654; and commercial treaties 
were also made with other powers. 

The elections for parliament had been perfectly free ; and it was 
soon evident that the party of the protector was in a minority. 
The members immediately commenced a vigorous debate upon his 
authority and their own ; and for the third time he employed mili- 
tary force, and excluded all who would not sign a " Eecognition " 
of four points. These were : Supreme power in one man — successive 
parliaments — liberty of conscience — and a united command over 
the army by both parliament and protector. About this time, 
Cromwell, in one of his usual frolics, attempting to drive six fiery 
horses, presented to him by a German prince, was upset, and nearly 
lost his life, much to the delight of the Cavaliers. As soon as the 
five months were at an end, he dissolved the parliament in the 
midst of their business — reproaching them with their inertness and 
encouragement to the enemy. 

A singular coalition between the royalists and idtra-republicans 
was now planned, and an ineffectual rising was made. A number 
of the leaders being apprehended, were executed, and the other pris- 
oners were shipped for slaves to Barbadoes. Severe measures were 
now taken against the royalists, especially noblemen, cavaliers, and 
clergy, and excessive taxes were imposed on the disaffected party. 
To levy these, and to carry out his other arbitrary measures, he 



ENGLAND. g7J_ 

divided England into eleven districts, eacli under a major-general. 
These officers had almost unlimited power, and the nation soon 
found that the despotism of the Stuarts had been feeble, compared 
with the iron rule of its new master. 

Foreign affairs were conducted with vigour and manly spirit. The 
protector demanded of Spain free trade in the Atlantic, and non- 
molestation of English subjects by the Inquisition, The Spanish 
minister answered that the two points in question were the two ejes 
of his master, neither of which he would allow to be put out. Crom- 
well had, meanwhile, prepared two fleets, one of which; of thirty 
sail, under Blake, had gone to the Mediterranean, enforcing satisfac- 
tion for English losses, and chastising the piratical states of Africa. 
The other, of the same force, had sailed to the AVest Indies, and, 
after an attempt on Hispaniola, rendered fruitless by mutiny and 
disease, made a descent on Jamaica. A terrible persecution of the 
Protestants in Piedmont called forth his interference, and the duke 
of Savoy was compelled to allow them the free exercise of their 
religion. This occasion also formed the subject of those sublime 
verses of Milton, commencing, 

"Avenge, Oh Lord, thy slaughtered saints, whose bones 
Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold." 

A treaty of alliance Mdth France was concluded, and the Jews, 
through, the protector's liberality, were permitted to reside in Eng- 
land, whence they had been banished since the reign of Edward I. 
An extraordinary and somewhat formidable alliance was secretly 
made between Charles, the levellers, and the court of Spain. Mean- 
while, Cromwell summoned a parliament for September, 1656. In 
spite of the exertions of government, many bostile members were 
returned; but, as the council was empowered to examine their 
cjualifications, about one hundred were excluded, under various pre- 
texts, such as immorality, &c. Large supplies were voted for the 
war with Spain; and Cromwell entertained strong hopes of receiv- 
ing the title of king, to which he had for some time aspired. To 
conciliate the popular favour, he refused to protect the major-generals 
from suits for their previous oppressions. Another scheme for his 
assassination was disconcerted, but the chief conspirator died mys- 
teriously before execution. 

When the first movement in favour of his elevation was made in 
the house, great excitement and disorder ensued; but after long 



672 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

debate, and strong opposition from tlie army, it was voted, in a 
"Humble Petition and Advice," that tie should be requested to 
accept the title of king. He affected great surprise and consterna- 
tion, deferring his answer. The opposition of the army, his main 
dependance, was, however, so implacable, that he perceived the 
danger of assenting; and in a long, embarrassed speech before par- 
liament, to the surprise of almost every one, declined accepting the 
new honour. The word "protector," was substituted in the "Peti- 
tion," which empowered him to appoint his successor, and to 
nominate members for the "Other House," as it was phrased. He 
was inaugurated with great solemnity, and with somewhat of regal 
ceremony, at Westminster, on the 12th of May, 1657. The house 
then adjourned for six months. At this time appeared the cele- 
brated pamphlet of Colonel Titus, entitled "Killing no Murder," and 
strongly advocating his assassination. 

Admiral Blake, after several brilliant exploits against the Spanish 
fleets, and the capture of much treasure, died while reentering the 
harbour of Portsmouth, He was interred, with a magnificent funeral, 
in Westminster Abbey, 

Parliament again met in January, 1658, the protector having 
summoned sixty persons, mostly nobles and gentlemen, to form the 
"Other House." But the excluded members of the commons had 
been allowed to resume their seats; the rights and title of the other 
body were immediately discussed; and Cromwell, perceiving that 
his authority was not preponderant, went down to them, and, after 
various reproaches, dissolved them — thus for the fourth time taking 
the entire government forcibly into his own hands. 

He now seemed at the height of his j)ower. Conspiracies and 
preparations for invasion were disconcerted by his address ; his arms 
and policy prospered abroad; but he was oppressed with deep mel- 
ancholy, and constantly dreaded assassination. The death of his 
favourite daughter Elizabeth, added to his grief; and it is said that, 
in her last moments, she remonstrated with him on his course of 
violence and usurpation. His own illness soon followed, and he 
seems to have manifested some anxiety concerning an hereafter, 
though comforting himself with the reflection that he had once been 
in a state of grace, from which, his chaplain assured him, it was 
impossible to fall. On the 3d of September, the anniversary of the 
victories of Dunbar and Worcester, and which he had ever regarded 
as his fortunate day, death 



ENGLAND. 



673 



"Deposed him gently from his throne of force, 
And laid him with the earth's preceding clay." 



A terrible storm, wliicli accompanied this event, was variously 
interpreted by his adherents and the royalists, according their own 
sentiments. The career of this remarkable man, originally an 
obscure country gentleman, forms the best comment upon his char- 
acter and principles. Commencing with patriotism and religious 
enthusiasm, (which never quite forsook him,) he ended with engross- 
ing ambition. 

The funeral of the late protector was conducted in a stjde of 
magnificence which England had never before witnessed ; and his son 
Richard was proclaimed in his stead, without any opposition. He 
was a man of amiable temper, but unfit for the stormy and perilous 
times in which he assumed this weighty office. He was speedily 
obliged to make concessions to the army, and in January, 1659, 
summoned a parliament. The Protectorists constituted about one- 
half of the house ; Republicans and Moderates, among whom were 
some royalists, the remainder. His recognition was carried with 
great difficulty, after a fierce debate. The Republicans united with 
the army; and the majority, in alarm, voted that the officers should 
no longer meet in council. The troops, however, disobeyed the 
protector, and adhered to their own commanders. He was conse- 
quently obliged to dissolve parliament, and put himself into their 
hands. By a general council of the officers, the remains of the 
"Long Parliament" (dissolved by Oliver in, 1653) were again 
summoned, and sat in their house, to the number of forty-two. 
While the various factions in the house and army were debating 
over their respective plans, the royalists were secretly active. The 
leading Presbyterians were all won over to the cause of Charles, 
and it is even said that Richard, now the mere shadow of a ruler, 
tempted by the offer of a title and a large pension, entertained the 
same views. A premature rising, however, in Cheshire, was easily 
suppressed by Lambert, who then hastened to London, where he 
was in hopes to gain the supreme power. After much altercation 
among the ambitious officers, and some show of military force, par- 
liament was again dissolved, and the power left with the council of 
the army until another could be summoned. 

General Monk, who commanded in Scotland, was a man of mod- 
erate views and supposed to be a supporter of the present form of 
43 



674 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

government, Lambert was sent against him by the army; but he 
amused him with negotiation, meanwhile strengthening his own 
authority in every possible way. In England, the officers continu- 
ally lost ground ; the fleet and various strongholds declared against 
them; and finally, in November, 1659 the soldiers in London, desert- 
ing their officers, declared for parliament, and reinstated the remains 
of the Rump. These immediately remodelled the army, dismissed 
fifteen hundred officers, and proceeded to punish their late dis- 
turbers. Fairfax and Monk had seized upon York, but the latter, 
profoundly dissembling his real sentiments, refused to proclaim the 
king, and even caned an officer who charged him with the design. 
Being invited to London, he marched thither with five thousand 
men, still keeping his intentions wrapt in impenetrable secresy. 
Meanwhile, the royalists were every where busy, and the loj^alty of 
the city daily increased.' Tlie common council was at open variance 
with the parliament; and Monk, seeing that he could act with safety, 
insisted upon a dissolution, that a free parliament might at once be 
summoned. This resolution caused great joy and excitement among 
the citizens — the excluded members, some of whom had been 
expelled for more than eleven years, resumed their seats ; and all 
acts against the king and royalists were annulled. Monk was made 
commander-in-chief, and this memorable body adjourned, for the 
last time, on the 16th of March, 1660. 

Monk, though still pretending to support the new commonwealth, 
entered into communication with Charles, advising him what meas- 
ures to pursue. Partially following his suggestions, the prince 
forwarded a declaration, with letters to the two houses, the city, the 
army, and the navy. The parliament, which met on the 25th of 
April, had been elected in the freest manner, there being no inter- 
ference on the part of the government. The royalists were in a 
decided majority. The Republicans, with Lambert at their head, 
had attempted to get control over the army, but he and his coad- 
jutors were taken, and committed to the tower on the 24th. The 
House of Peers also gradually reassembled, no one opposing them. 
On the 1st of May, the letter to the House of Commons was 
delivered, and the bearer received the thanks of parliament, with a 
handsome reward. Those to the city, army, and navy, were also read 
to them, and addresses to the king were unanimously voted. The 
declaration contained promises of amnesty, liberty of conscience, 
and the settlement of titles and military arrears — all, however, 




CliaKLES il. 



fR 'J'HE ORIGINAL, HY SIH FETER LK3.T. 



"Fhoi-i swfii M souool, it miguc have been expected that a young man who 
vriuted ueithei" iibiUties nor amiable qualities, would have come forth a great 
Hud good king. Charges came I'orth from that school, with social habits, with 
Tioiite and engaging manners, and with some talent for lively conversation, 
■nddieted beyond measure to sensual indulgence, fond of sauntering and of 
frivolous amusements, incapable of self-denial and of exertion, without faith 
m human virtue or in human attachment, Avithout desire of renown, ar'^ with- 
out sensibility to reproa.ch ' — IvlAC,\ni,AT s History of England 



ENGLAND. 



675 



referable to the decision of future parliaments. These promises 
were plainly of little value, since every one might see that the next 
parliament would probably consist of devoted royalists; and Sir 
Matthew Hale and others urged a final settlement of all points in 
dispute between the crown and parliament. Through the influence 
of Monk, however, this was overruled; the house rung with accla- 
mation, and Charles was restored to the throne without the slightest 
limitation. He was proclaimed on the 8th of May, with great 
solemnity, and landed on the 2oth at Dover, where he was received 
by Monk, with many of the nobility and gentry. He made a tri- 
umphant progress to the capital, attended by a great concourse of 
people. The city received him with the greatest exultation, and he 
remarked that it must have been his own fault that he did not come 
sooner, since all protested that they had longed for his restoration. 
The Commonwealth and Protectorate, after an existence of eleven 
years, thus ended. They had never been popular with the greater 
portion of people, attached to the ancient forms, incapable of appre- 
ciating true liberty, and associating the late government, naturally 
enough, with military rule and heavy taxation. They had, however, 
been of great service in destroying slavish reverence for ancient 
usages, and opening the way for a gradual and more enlightened 
reform in the constitution. 



vj ujcL) UiOi ii X iLt iLii Ui^ i£^ 



CHARLES II. 



The nation, after its relief from the rigid rule of the Puritans, 
ran wildly into the opposite extreme of gayety and licentiousness. 
The king rewarded with titles and offices such as had been chiefly 
instrumental in his restoration. Parliament settled on him an 
income of one million two hundred thousand pounds, various feudal 
revenues of an oppressive nature being relinquished in return. The 
excise on liquors was devoted to defray this new expense. The 
army, consisting of sixty thousand men, was gradually and peace- 
ably disbanded — only about five thousand being retained. Twenty- 



QJQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

nine of tliose who had officiated at the trial of Charles I. were 
arraigned before commissioners, all were found guilty of treason, 
ten of them were executed, and the remainder were imprisoned for 
life. The bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, were taken 
from their tombs in Westminster Abbey, ignominiously dragged to 
Tyburn, and hung oil the gallows. Their heads were afterwards 
fixed on Westminster Hall, 

The king was crowned with great solemnity on the 23d of April, 
1661, and the new parliament met on the 8th of May. Titles gained 
by action of the late government had been already annulled, and 
the new assembly, which was strongly royalist, proceeded at once 
to restore the Episcopal Church and its ceremonies, by the most 
stringent measures — enacting, among other things, that all officers 
of corporations must take the sacrament according to the rites of the 
established church. Sir Henry Yane, who had received from 
Charles an assurance of his life, was, at their instance, tried and 
executed, justifying to the last the late king's sentence and his own 
political career. 

In Scotland, the royal commissioner summoned a parliament, 
composed of unprincipled wretches, and called, from the continual 
inebriety of its members, "The Drunken Parliament." A law was 
passed annulling all previous acts, since 1633, and the country was 
at once laid open to the mercy of a greedy and revengeful faction. 
The duke of Argyle and other distinguished covenanters were exe- 
cuted, and it was resolved forcibly to replant Episcopacy. 

Charles had been for some time in treaty for marriage with Catha- 
rine, the infanta of Portugal. On the 20th of May, 1662, she arrived 
in England, and was shortly afterwards espoused to him ; but fell 
down in a fit on being compelled to receive as one of her chief 
attendants Lady Castlemain, the favourite mistress of the king. 
She was, nevertheless, obliged to submit; and the king, for many 
years, was ruled by a succession of favourites, who, by their num- 
ber and beauty, seemed rather the appendages of an oriental seraglio 
than of an English and Christian court. 

The " Act of Uniformity " was strictly enforced, and about two 
thousand of the clergy forfeited their livings rather than give assent 
in full to the Book of Common Prayer. A severe statute against 
all who should attend any religious meetings except those of the 
church, soon filled the prisons with persecuted dissenters, especially 
with the Quakers, who had now increased into a considerable sect. 



ENGLAND. Q'J'J 

In 1664, tlie Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, in North. 
America, was claimed as belonging to England by right of discovery, 
was taken possession of without resistance, and named New York, 
in honour of the king's brother, James, duke of York. By this, 
and similar acts of hostility, war was brought on, and parliament 
voted two millions five hundred thousand pounds to defray the 
expenses of the contest. In April, 1665, the duke of York, who 
had effected great improvements in the navy, put to sea, with more 
than a hundred ships, and for a month rode triumphantly along the 
coast of Holland. On the 8d of June, Admiral Opdam, with an 
hundred and thirteen ships, came out, and engaged him ofi" the coast 
of Suffolk. The action, which was violently contested, resulted in 
the entire defeat of the Dutch, with the loss of their admiral, 
eighteen ships, and seven thousand men. 

At this time the plague broke out in London, and committed 
dreadful ravages. During the summer of 1665, the city was half- 
depopulated by the death and flight of its inhabitants. Immense 
pits were dug, in which the dead were thrown almost indiscrimi- 
nately. More than a hundred thousand died of this terrible disease, 
and the mortality in other places was in proportion to the density 
of their population. Other misfortunes speedily followed. On the 
1st of June, 1666, the duke of Albemarle, with fifty ships, was 
defeated with great loss, by a superior force of the Dutch, under 
De Witt and De Euyter. This disaster was in some measure coun- 
terbalanced by a more successful action, and the destruction of a 
vast number of Dutch merchantmen. 

On the 2d of September, a fire broke out in the capital, which, 
increased by a violent wind, spread rapidly over the city. The king 
showed unusual energy and humanity; but the people were panic- 
struck by the suddenness and fury of the conflagration. It raged 
for several days, and was at last subdued only by blowing up various 
houses with gunpowder. Two thirds of the citj^ comprising thirteen 
thousand houses and eighty-nine churches, had been destroyed ; and 
vast numbers of the people were reduced to extreme distress by the 
want of shelter. The city, however, was soon rebuilt in a greatly 
improved manner, and a lofty monument, ascribing this disaster to 
the Papists, v^as erected on the spot where the fire commenced. 

These misfortunes, and the utter mismanagement of the treasury, 
so crippled the resources of the country, that, in June, 1667, the 
Dutch fleet entered the Thames with impunity, sailed up to Upnor, 



678 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

and burned several ships of war. Their cannon were heard even in 
London, and men now turned their thoughts to the memory of one 
whose body had been dragged to Tyburn, and whose head was yet 
bleaching on the great Hall of their city. Whatever had been his 
faults of violence or usurpation, Oliver Cromwell had, at least, never 
suffered a foreign foe to alarm the shores of England. After the 
coasts had been insulted by De Kuyter for six weeks, peace was 
concluded. 

Lord Clarendon, the high chancellor, and father-in-law of the duke 
of York, had heretofore been the king's principal adviser. He was 
bigoted and intolerant, but superior in principle to most of the 
statesmen of his time. Both qualities had made him many ene- 
mies; the king was weary of his lecturing; and, more than all, he 
would not permit his wife to visit Lady Castlemain. The nation 
was incensed at the recent misfortunes, and his dismissal from ofl&ce 
and banishment from the kingdom were generally satisfactory. In 
his foreign retirement he completed the able and elegant historical 
works which, more than his political career, have preserved his 
reputation, 

A new ministry was now formed, consisting of some of the most 
profligate men in England, and called, from the initials of its mem- 
bers, the "Cabal," The duke of Buckingham, son of the favourite 
of Charles I., and a man of great ambition, talent, and levity, was 
the prime favourite of the king, and, though without any ostensible 
office, was the most influential member of government. Most of 
these venal officials were soon in the pay of Louis, the French king. 
Charles and his brother were both secretly Catholics, and in 1669 
resolved to remove the obstacles which prevented them from making 
an open profession of their faith. The aid of Louis was sought, and 
promised, in event of the change producing an insurrection. Mean- 
while, persecutions against the dissenting ministers continued with 
much rigour, and the odious trade of informers was openly encour- 
aged by parliament. The court viewed these proceedings with 
satisfaction, hoping assistance from the dissenters in obtaining uni- 
versal toleration. A secret treaty was concluded with Louis, by 
which the two nations were to conquer and divide Holland, and to 
seize on other important possessions — the French king bearing the 
chief expense ; and Charles was to declare himself a Catholic as soon 
as the measure should appear safe. The Cabal commenced raising 
supplies for the contest by the most odious means. One million 



ENGLAND, 



679 



three hundred thousand pounds were procured, and a vast number 
of persons ruined by the seizure of such revenues as were pledged 
for the payment of previous debts. A piratical expedition was also 
despatched to seize the Smyrna fleet belonging to Holland, with 
which power the nation, as yet, was in friendly alliance. It was, 
however, disconcerted by the address of the Dutch government. 
War was then formally declared (1672) — various petty and frivolous 
reasons being alleged by the French and English sovereigns, whose 
true motives, however, were the desire of conquest and the hope of 
dealing a fatal blow to the Protestant interests in Europe. Other 
powers entered into this iniquitous confederacy. 

Hostilities commenced at sea, the Dutch, under De Euyter, losing 
three ships to the duke of York. Louis, with an hundred thousand 
men, poured into Holland, reduced a great part of it, and advanced 
within three leagues of Amsterdam. The people, in an ignorant 
phrensy, murdered the De Witts, their ablest and most patriotic 
leaders, and put at their head William, the young prince of Orange, 
(a son of Mary, daughter of Charles I.,) whose genius and courage 
saved them from the impending ruin. He took the most energetic 
measures of resistance. The dykes were opened, and half the coun- 
try was laid under water. It was also resolved by the patriotic 
Hollanders, if all resistance should be vain, to leave their country 
for ever, and found a new nation in the East. But fortune assisted 
their endeavours, and Louis, returning to the pleasures of his capital, 
left the war to be slowly protracted by his generals. 

Parliament met in February, 1673, and voted a large sum to carry 
on the war. They, however, vehemently attacked a "Declaration 
of Indulgence" which the king had passed, and resolved, by a 
large majority, that no one except themselves had power to dispense 
with the penalties in matters of religion. Charles was indignant, 
but was compelled to yield, and withdrew the declaration. A "Test 
Act" was also passed, requiring all persons holding ofl&ces of trust 
to receive the sacrament of the English Church, &;c. The duke of 
York, against whom, with other Catholics, this measure was levelled, 
laid down all his offices, and others were compelled to follow his 
example. 

A fleet, under Prince Eupert, was despatched against the Dutch ; 
and three actions with De Ruyter, all indecisive, followed. Hostili- 
ties at sea continued, and Count Schomberg, attempting to land an 
army on their coast, was disappointed. The prince of Orange, 



680 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOET. 

assisted bj Austria, defended his country witli great courage and 
success. Peace with England was concluded in February, 1674, the 
questions in dispute being settled by arbitration, and a subsidy 
being paid by the Dutch. At the same meeting of parliament 
which settled this question, several of the ministry had beei^i 
attacked ; and Buckingham, deserted by the king, joined Shaftes 
bury and the opposition, Louis, anxious to keep down the Protest- 
ant influence, procured the king to prorogue parliament for fifteen 
months, paying him five hundred thousand crowns as a considera- 
tion. He further privately engaged to pay him a yearly pension of 
one hundred thousand pounds, on condition that the two nations 
should be in strict secret alliance — a dishonourable bribe, which 
made the English monarch almost the vassal of his French ally, 

Louis had again entered Flanders at the head of a large army, 
and the parliament, which met in 1667, strongly urged the king to 
declare war in favour of his Protestant allies. He tried to obtain a 
large sum from them, perfidiously pledging his word that it should 
be applied to the purposes for which it was granted; but they dis- 
trusted him, and the French king, by further bribery, prevailed on 
him to adjourn the parliament. Soon afterwards, the prince of 
Orange was married to Mary, daughter of the duke of York; and 
Charles entertained serious desires of permanently settling the long- 
disputed contest. Louis, although winter was at hand, refused the 
terms offered to him, and again took the field with his forces, stop- 
ping the payment of the pension, but still offering large bribes, in 
case the king would continue to sustain his interests. Charles, 
however, informed the parliament, which met in January, 1678, 
that he had concluded a treaty with the Dutch for their protection, 
and thus gained large supplies from them ; but after some forces 
had been despatched, distrusting him, they refused to vote further 
subsidies until satisfied in respect to religious matters. Enraged at 
this, he immediately prorogued them, and concluded a secret treaty 
with Louis, engaging, in consideration of four hundred thousand 
pounds, to withdraw his troops, if Holland would not consent to 
the treaty of Nimeguen, which was greatly to the advantage of the 
French monarch. The treaty, with some modifications, was, how- 
ever, signed, and peace was concluded. 

In this year, a most atrocious persecution, under sanction of the 
law, was perpetrated against the Catholics, Titus Gates, a man of 
infamous character, pretended to have discovered a great conspiracj 



ENGLAND. QQ^ 

of the Jesuits and otliers, for the purpose of killing the king, burn- 
ing the city, and reestablishing the Komish supremacy. This, with 
a vast mas? of improbable circumstances, often entirely contradic- 
tory, he detailed before the council. In the excited feeling against 
the Catholics, however, all these absurd stories were greedily swal- 
lowed by the multitude; and, unluckily for the accused party, 
papers w ere taken from Coleman, a dependant of the duke of York, 
proving the existence of a plot for introducing Romanism, though 
certainly not that which Gates pretended to reveal ; but one much 
more respectable and formidable, comprising Louis, the king, the 
duke of York, and other influential names. The public excitement 
was increased by the mysterious disappearance of Godfrey, the 
magistrate who had first taken the deposition of Gates. His body 
was found in a ditch, thrust through with his own sword, leaving it 
difficult to determine whether he was murdered or had committed 
suicide. Many persons were taken into arrest upon the perjured 
evidence of Gates, and parliament, in alarm, voted that "a dam- 
nable and hellish plot" existed, and that all papists should be 
removed from London and, its vicinity. A bill was also passed, 
which, for an hundred and fifty years, excluded Catholics from the 
House of Lords. The trials of the accused were conducted with 
great tyranny and injustice, and many persons were executed. 
Gates, assisted by Bedloe and other perjured informers, Avas voted 
large sums as reward for his villany. The queen herself was accused, 
but Charles refused to abandon her to this merciless Protestant per- 
secution. The city was kept under arms, and in the excited state 
of the public mind, no one ventured to question the existence of 
this pretended plot. In January, 1679, parliament was dissolved, 
after having held their places for eighteen years. Popular agitation 
still continued so violent, that the duke of York was compelled to 
depart for the continent. 

The new parliament met in March, 1679, and immediately 
impeached the earl of Danby, the king's principal adviser, who was 
committed to the tower. He was sa\ed by Charles, however, who 
had resolved not to consent to his destruction. The king, vainly 
hoping to conciliate the popular party, admitted, by advice of Sir 
William Temple, a number of popular members into the council, 
and even appointed as president Lord Shaftesbury, the leader of 
the opposition. Nevertheless, a bill was speedily passed by a large 
majority of the commons, excluding the duke of York, although 



(382 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

the hereditary heir, from the throne. To prevent farther action, 
Charles immediately prorogued parliament for ten weeks. 

Persecution still continued; and a considerable number of Jesuits 
and other priests were executed — some as accessaries to the pre- 
tended plot, and others for exercising their ministerial functions. 
Through the influence of the king, it was at last abated, and several 
innocent prisoners were acquitted. 

In Scotland, the greatest oppression had prevailed. The people, 
attached to their own form of worship, and seeing their clergy 
expelled from their livings, held meetings, called "Conventicles," in 
the open air. These were forcibly suppressed, and the people, driven 
to desperation by many acts of cruelty, took to arms. After several 
actions, they were defeated with great loss at Bothwell Bridge, by 
the duke of Monmouth, a natural son of the king. Many had already 
been executed, and though the duke, a. man of humane disposition, 
advocated the cause of the unfortunate covenanters, they were for a 
long time harassed with the most cruel persecutions. 

The king dissolved the parliament, and a new one was elected. 
Finding this assembly constituted much like the former, he pro- 
rogued it on the day it met, and prevented any action for more than 
a year. In January, 1680, the duke of York was recalled to court, 
and was soon afterwards presented, for recusancy, to the grand jury, 
by Shaftesbury and other leaders of the opposition. The attempt 
was defeated by the chief justice, but the duke was compelled to 
return to Scotland, where he had lately been residing. Parliament 
met on the day after his departure, and immediately resumed the 
subject of his exclusion. A perjured witness swore to his plotting 
against the king's life; other questionable evidence was taken, and 
the bill of exclusion was passed by a strong majority, and sent up to 
the House of Lords, where, however, it was rejected by a large vote. 
The House of Commons had now become so dictatorial and insolent, 
that another arbitrary parliament was feared ; but a private gentle- 
man having resisted their sergeant-at-arms, they discovered that 
they had exceeded their lawful power, and receded from their pre- 
tensions. Enraged at their disappointment in the matter of exclusion, 
they attacked the king's ministry, and maliciously impeached the 
venerable Lord Stafford, a Catholic nobleman. He was tried in 
Westminster Hall, and convicted of being accessary to the plot, on 
the villanous testimony of Gates and other perjured informers; and 
shortly after was executed. 



ENGLAND. 



683 



In January, 1681, the king, alarmed at the attitude of the house, 
dissolved it, and summoned another to meet at Oxford in two 
months — the object being to transfer the government from a turbu- 
lent and republican city to a more loyal vicinity. To ensure his 
independence, he entered into treaty with Louis for a new pension, 
to last three years. The parliament was mostly composed of its 
former members; but the king, not being compelled to sue for 
money, addressed them in a tone of authority, and perceiving them 
still busy with the exclusion, dissolved them, to the great satisfac- 
tion of the country, which was beginning to be weary of their factious 
and impracticable course. The power of the court now suddenly 
displayed itself, and Shaftesbury was committed to the tower; but 
the grand jury, who were of his party, refused to find a bill of 
indictment against him. 

In Scotland, persecution still continued, and numbers, both of 
men and women, were executed. The duke of York, having held 
a parliament there, returned to court; and Monmouth, whose ambi- 
tious designs on the succession had occasioned his banishment to 
Holland, also returned. He was received with great joy by the 
people, among whom he was exceedingly popular ; but was arrested 
during a sort of triumphal procession, which he was making through 
the kingdom. The court, by intrigue, now obtained the appointment 
of the sheriffs, and thus ensured juries ready to obey its wishes. 
In 1683. a frivolous accusation was made against the city of London, 
and its charter was declared forfeited by the judges, who w'ere the 
mere tools of court. The whole power of this and many other 
corporations was thus thrown into the king's hands. A more deadly 
blow still was to be struck at the opposition. Since the dissolution 
of parliament, the popular Protestant leaders had been in the habit 
of holding consultations, and the project of a rising against govern- 
ment was no doubt entertained. Betrayed by one of their associates, 
several of the leading members of this secret council had been 
arrested. Lord Essex, despairing of a fair trial, took his own life, 
and Lord Russell, being tried before a jury, w^as found guilty of high 
treason. This amiable and patriotic nobleman had certainly brought 
himself within the compass of the law; but his execution, which 
the king obstinately refused to avert, was an impolitic and unneces- 
sary act of cruelty. Algernon Sidney, an ardent republican of the 
same party, was next tried before the brutal Jeffreys, chief justice 
of the king's bench, and convicted in a manner utterly opposed to 



634 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

law and evidence. Like Russell, lie died with great constancy and 
heroism. The duke of Monmouth, who was also fully implicated, 
was, nevertheless, partially reconciled to the king, his father. The 
opposition now seemed annihilated; for a scheme to murder the 
king (the celebrated "Rye-house Plot") had been . discovered, and 
the people, confounding this with the charge alleged against the 
condemned, every where supported the court. 

The Princess Anne, daughter of the duke of York, was married 
to Prince George, brother of the king of Denmark; and from this , 
time the influence of the duke, owing to the indolence of Charles, 
was predominant, and he had the principal direction of affairs. On 
the 2d of February, 1685, the king was seized with a fit of apoplexy, 
and on the 6th expired, having previously received absolution in • 
private from a priest of the Catholic faith, to which he had always 
secretly inclined. 

This king presented a striking picture of amiable manners and 
strong private affections, joined to almost all the qualities which can 
disgrace a monarch. He was deceitful, mean, rapacious, ungrateful, 
and utterly careless of the national welfare arid honour. The license 
and immorality of his court exceeded all that had ever been witnessed 
in England. Nevertheless, the people, charmed by his gayety and 
affability, were always fond of him, and lamented his death much 
more than they would probably have done that of a better king. 



lu iLJj ui\) lL tL Jj Jill u\> uXi Ji I 



JAMES II. 

James, immediately on his accession, conciliated the people and 
the church, by a most express and public declaration that the 
Establishment should not be disturbed. The ministers of the late 
king were continued in office. He made, however, no secret either 
of his own religion or that of his brother, and was at some pains 
to publish the secret views and conversion of the latter. He also 
gave much uneasiness to zealous Protestants by attending the 



ENGLAND. 535 

Catliolic worship in the most public and conspicuous manner ; and 
further still, by ordering the discharge of all recusants. He had 
also a secret Catholic council, and at his coronation took the oaths 
with a mental reservation. Parliament, which, on account of the 
surrender of charters to his brother, was composed almost entirely 
of loyal subjects, voted him, unanimously, a revenue equal to that 
of the late king; yet, while declaring their implicit confidence in 
his declaration, manifestly felt uneasy on the subject of religion 

Meanwhile, however, a formidable plot had been concerted among 
the Protestant exiles, headed by Monmouth and Argyle. The latter 
landed in Scotland on the 2d of May, 1685, but was only able to 
raise two thousand five hundred men. This small force soon dis- 
persed, and the duke, attempting to escape in disguise, was taken, 
and on the 30th executed at Edinburgh. Monmouth, detained by 
various circumstances, did not ar.-i^^''?. until the 11th of June, when 
he landed at Lyme, in Dorse t^nuic, and put forth a proclamation, 
styling James " a usurper " and accusing him of the burning of Lon- 
don, and of other crime5r Large numbers flocked to his standard, 
and he marched with four thousand men to Taunton, proclaiming 
himself king. He received some farther marks of popular favour, 
but learning of the defeat of Argyle, and finding himself joined by 
none of the gentry, began to despair of success. He finally, on the 
1st of July, encountered the royal forces under the earl of Feversham, 
at a place called Sedgemoor. The ill-armed peasants, of which his 
army was composed, fought bravely, but were defeated with a loss 
of five hundred killed and fifteen hundred prisoners. The duke 
himself, with other leaders, attempting to escape, was taken. ' 

The hatred of his uncle, exasperated by the late attempt, was 
implacable; and on the 14th of July, this gallant and popular noble- 
man was beheaded on Tower-hill, amid the lamentations of the 
people, by whom he had always been beloved, despite his weakness 
and ambition. He perished in the thirty-sixth year of his age. 

The most barbarous vengeance was taken upon the deluded and 
ignorant insurgents. The infamous Jeffreys made a circuit through 
the country, trying the accused, and several hundred were executed 
by his orders, after a species of mock trial. One aged matron was 
beheaded, and another burned alive, for affording succour to the fugi- 
tives. The air was infected from the number of victims whose 
mangled remains were exposed by the road-side. Great numbers 
were sold into slavery, and others were given to the Maids of Honour, 



(J^g THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

who sold their liberty at exhorbitant rates. The king instigated and 
approved all these murderous proceedings, and Jeffreys is said to 
have declared, on his death-bed, that his blood-thirsty master waf 
"unsatisfied even with these extraordinary and sweeping executions 
The chief instigators of the insurrection, except Monmouth, saved 
their lives by bribery and other means. 

James now felt secure and highly elated. He addressed the 
parliament in a tone of authority, and finding them not completely 
submissive, prorogued them, to act no more during his reign. He 
kept up the army from his own revenue, and resolved to fill the 
principal commands with Catholics. To annul the act requiring 
their compliance with the rites of the church, he appointed judges 
pliant to his wishes, and gained from these a decision that his dis 
pensation (an ancient, but disputed branch of the royal prerogative) 
was sufficient to render the required conformance unnecessary. He 
gave similar dispensations to certain Catholic officers in the Univer- 
sity of Oxford. These measures alarmed the Protestants, who saw 
his intention of reestablishing Romanism, and prepared the way for 
his overthrow. 

Father Petre, the king's confessor, a zealotis and fanatical priest, 
approved and stimulated the almost insane projects of the king. By 
especial request of James, a papal nuncio was appointed to the court 
of England. The pontiff, however, and his emissary, more prudent 
and moderate than their royal partisan, endeavoured vainly to 
restrain his rash proceedings. Convents were openly established 
in London ; the Jesuits opened a school ; and the earnest Protestants 
were scandalized at seeing friars ranging through the city in the 
long-proscribed habit of their order. To overawe opposition, the 
army, fifteen thousand in number, lay encamped on Hounslow Heath, 
mass being publicly performed, and great efforts made to convert 
the soldiery. These were mostly unsuccessful, and it is remarkable 
that in an age of such shameless venality and dishonest ambition, 
so few could be found to barter their conscience or their prejudices 
for court favour. Even Kirke, a brutal officer, refused the king's 
solicitations, alleging that he had promised the emperor of Morocco 
to turn Mahometan, if he changed at all. The few men of influ- 
ence who complied, were promoted to high stations, and both the 
cabinet and privy council were partly composed of Catholics. Great 
numbers of Protestants holding offices under government and in tae 
army, were dismissed, or resigned their commissions, the vacancies 



ENGLAND. 



687 



being filled with Romanists. A declaration was issued, suspending 
the penal laws and the requirements of tests; and was, at first, 
received with much joj and loyalty by the dissenters. Their antipa- 
thy to the Catholics, however, proved in the end so much stronger 
thati dieir desire for toleration, that they vehemently opposed the 
king's measures, and supported the bishops in their resistance. Ser- 
mons vv'ere even preached against the very act by which alone the 
speakers were permitted to occupy their pulpits. 

Great excitement was caused by the king's persistance in attempt- 
ing to convert the universities into Catholic institutions, and by 
his oppressively forcing his own creatures upon them for officers. 
The people had now become generally alarmed upon the subject 
of religion, and turned their thoughts for assistance to the prince 
of Orange, the acknowledged champion of the Protestant cause. 
Several noblemen opened a secret correspondence with him, and an 
armed resistance was contemplated. In this state of popular feeling, 
the opposition of the Episcopal clergy determined the fate of James. 
In May, 1688, he required that his declaration of general toleration 
should be read from all the pulpits. The bishops and others of the 
clergy remonstrated; but the king was firm. He accused them of 
rebellious practices, and persisted in his demand. Out of a body of 
ten thousand clergymen, not more than two hundred complied. 

James, in spite of the advice of even his Catholic counsellors, 
resolved to prosecute the bishops for the remonstrance which they 
had signed ; and, amid the lamentations of the people, seven of them 
were committed to the tower. At the trial, in spite of every exer- 
tion on the part of the crown, they were acquitted, and the popular 
cause gained a vast accession, of strength and confidence. The king, 
who had been grievously annoyed by the confirmed Protestantism 
of his daughters, was somewhat consoled by the birth of a son and 
heir to the throne ; but such was the prej udice against his cause, and 
all that seemed to strengthen it, that hardly any of the Protestants 
would admit the reality of the birth, though attested by the strong- 
est evidence. It was maintained, and generally believed, that a 
supposititious child had been palmed upon the people for the sake 
of securing a Catholic heir to the throne. 

The occurrence of this event decided the leaders of opposition; 
and an invitation, signed by a number of the nobility and clergy, 
was sent to the prince, entreating him to come to their assistance. 
A great part of Europe was already in alliance, under the direction 



688 '^^^^ PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTCP.Y. 

of tliis politic and able sovereign, to check the ambition of France.' 
and he was enabled to make large preparations for the invasion of 
England, under pretence of preparing to defend Holland. Louis, 
who saw the impending danger, hastened to offer his aid and alli- 
ance to James, which that infatuated prince refused. He soon, 
however, perceived his error, for the designs of William became 
unmistakeable ; and immediately commenced the work of conces- 
sion, neglecting no means to conciliate his offended clergy and people. 
A large fleet was also kept on the coast, and an army of forty thou- 
sand men was enlisted. But these acts of prudence and vigilance 
came too late. 

The prince, supported by the States of Holland, had in readiness 
a fleet of sixty men-of-war, and seven hundred transports. A force 
of fifteen thousand men was also ready to embark, commanded by 
Schomberg (William's former opponent and present ally) and by 
other able continental officers; and a number of noble English exiles 
and others were engaged in the undertaking. The sailing of this 
armament was, however, delayed for more than a month by furious 
gales from the west, and it did not leave the shores of Holland 
until the 1st of November (1688). The king, meanwhile, had done 
every thing to prop his sinking cause. He had proved, by a most 
formal investigation, the reality of the birth of his son ; had dismissed 
Sunderland, his unscrupulous adviser, from ofl&ce, and removed 
Father Petre from the council. 

On the 5th of November, William, with his forces, arrived safely 
at Torbay, in Devon, and landing, marched to Exeter. He was at 
first joined hj very few, the people being overawed by the late 
executions; and had serious thoughts of returning. At length. Sir 
Edward Seymour setting the example, numbers of the nobility and 
gentry came to his standard. His partisans also began to raise men in 
the different counties. James beheld himself deserted by one adher- 
ent after another, and his daughter Anne herself fled from him. 
"God help me!" he exclaimed, in tears; " my very children have 
forsaken me." Disaffection spread rapidly through the kingdom, 
and the most important places were soon occupied by the adherents 
of the prince. The queen and the infant prince of Wales had been 
secretly despatched to France, and James, after an ineffectual attempt 
at negotiation, resolved to follow them. He privately posted to 
Feversham, flinging the great seal into the river on his way; but, 
after having embarked, was detained, with his companions, on suspi* 



ENGLAND. 



689 



cion that they were Jesuits. His rank being ascertained, a guard 
was appointed for his protection, and he returned to London, where 
he was received with great demonstrations of loyalty, and resumed 
the functions of the royal authority. William, however, whose 
ambitious designs had been grievously disappointed by his return, 
compelled him, under pretext of securing his safety, to leave the 
capital, and take up his residence at Rochester. The aspirant to his 
throne, while omitting no means of alarming him, disposed the 
guards around his house in such a way that he could easily escape. 
His friends remonstrated ; yet this deluded prince (perhaps terrified 
by the fate of his father) actually fell into the snare, and precipi- 
tately retreated to France. This circumstance terminated his brief 
and odious reign, which, in the short space of three years, had 
proved him bigoted, faithless, cruel, and totally unfit to govern. 

The prince, proceeding to London, met with a most cordial recep- 
tion, and summoned the peers to consult upon the state of the nation. 
He received from them the entire charge of the administration until 
January 22d, 1689, when a convention was elected to meet at the 
capital. This body, on its meeting, immediately resolved that 
James, by his abuse of the law, his connection with popery, and his 
withdrawal from the kingdom, had abdicated the throne, and that 
the same was vacant. The convention then settled upon the prince 
and his wife a joint-title to the crown, under the names of William 
IIL and Mary IL, the real authority, however, being vested in the 
former. In default of heirs, the succession was settled on Anne, 
and in default of her heirs, on those of the prince of Orange. 

This event terminated the long struggle, in which, from the time 
of John, the crown and people had been almost continually engaged. 
When the unfortunate and ill-advised house of Stuart acceded to 
the throne, the power of the sovereign was almost without restraint. 
Increasing civilization, and their want of tact and ability, had kf-pt 
up an almost continued contest for popular rights, ending in the 
final expulsion of the direct heirs, and the firm establishment of 
nearly all the present principles of the English constitution. 



gg0 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

WILLIAM III., AND MARY II. 

The new reign commenced on the third of February, 1689. All 
Protestants were confirmed in their appointments, and the officers 
of state were chosen from the ranks of both the Whigs and Tories — 
names which though with very different significations, have been 
ever since adopted by the leading parties of Great Britain. By act 
of parliament, any Catholic, or any person marrying a Catholic, was 
excluded from the throne. An "Act of Toleration," through the 
king's influence, exempted dissenters from certain penalties, and the 
Catholics, though not mentioned, shared the benefit. Louis openly 
espoused the cause of James, and on the 7th of May, war was 
declared against France. 

In Scotland, a convention had been summoned immediately after 
the flight of James, and the "Whigs being in a majority, it was 
declared that he had forfeited the throne. William and Mary were 
proclaimed in his stead. His adherents, foiled in the convention, 
appealed to force, and Viscount Dundee (infamous, under the name 
of Claverhouse, for his cruelty to the Covenanters,) hastened to the 
Highlands, and raised a considerable force. General Mackay, who 
with a superior force was sent against him, was defeated, with a loss 
of fifteen hundred men. Dundee, however, received a wound, of 
which he died the next day, and the clans, deprived of a leader, laid 
down their arms. This decided the cause in Scotland; and Episco- 
pacy was soon supplanted by Presbytery. 

In Ireland, all the power was in the hands of the Catholics, and 
Lord Tyrconnel, the governor, declared for James. The dethroned 
monarch himself, furnished with supplies by Louis, landed with 
twelve hundred of his own subjects, at Kinsale, on the 12th of March. 
He entered Dublin, amid the acclamations of the Catholics, and took 
command of the army. Enniskillen and Londonderry alone offered 
any resistance, the latter being defended by the Protestants with 
desperate courage. After a close siege of some months, it was 
relieved from the sea, and the besiegers retired, after losing eight or 
nine thousand men. They were equally unsuccessful at Enniskillen. 
An Irish parliament was summoned, the "Act of Settlement" was 



ENGLAND. 



691 



repealed, and every measure taken to transfer the property into the 
hands of the CathoHcs. The Protestant worship was suppressed, 
and tithes were made payable to the priests. 

In August, the duke of Schomberg landed with ten thousand 
men, and was at first successful ; but after losing one-half his men 
by disease, was compelled to go into winter-quarters. An English 
squadron, sent to intercept the French supplies, was defeated, and 
forced to retreat. In 1690, Schomberg, with a reinforcement of 
seven thousand men, commenced the campaign successfully. In 
June, William landed in person, and found himself at the head of 
thirty-six thousand men. James, with a somewhat inferior force, 
encountered him at the river Boyne on the 1st of July. Crossing 
the river in three divisions, the English engaged their oppone».ts. 
The latter were compelled to retreat, with a loss of fifteen hundred 
men, and James himself, perceiving the probable event, fl&.-. in haste 
CO Dublin, embarked in a small vessel, and landed in «f ranee. 
William, after reaching Dublin, and proclaiming an £,mnesty to the 
3ommon people, attempted to storm Limerick, but was repulsed with 
great loss, and embarked for England, leaving the war in the hands 
of his generals. The combined English and Dutch fleets, under 
Lord Torrington, were, on the 20th of June, defeated by the French. 

Displeased with the conduct of parliament, he had dissolved it, 
and summoned a new one to meet in 1690. The Tories were in the 
majority, and with great difiiculty a bill had been passed, declaring 
the king and queen "rightful and lawful" sovereigns of Great Brit- 
ain, and ratifying the acts of the convention, as originally valid. 
Through the influence of the crown, it passed, and the Tories ceased 
to question the rights of the new incumbents. A bill of indemnity, 
and other important measures were carried through. On his return 
from Ireland, William obtained a grant of four millions, and, with 
his continental allies, undertook to prosecute vigorously the w ai 
against France. 

It seems certain that some of the leading politicians in Englar " 
were, at this time, in correspondence with James ; and. the earl c« 
M^-rlborough, who had recently commanded successfully against him 
ic Ireland, entered into a plot for his restoration. During the i'lm- 
mer ol 1691, William, accompanied, among others, by the earl^ 
carried on the continental war, and, on his return in October, learned 
that Ireland was completely reduced to submission. Keasonable 
terms were granted to the defeated painty. 



692 THE PEOPLE'S l.\.iOK OF HISTORY. 

In February, 1692, a most barbarous massacre was committed in 
the dead of night upon the tribe of Macdonalds at Glencoe, who 
had been adherents of the expelled dynasty. Misrepresentations 
had been made to the king; but his readiness to sign an order for 
the indiscriminate slaughter of a defenceless people, will always 
attach to his reputation the stain of cold-blooded cruelty. 

He returned to Holland in the spring, and great preparations for 
an invasion of England, were made both by James and his English 
adherents. Louis had furnished him with troops, which, with the 
exiles from his former dominions, amounted to fifteen or twenty 
thousand men. But the fleet which was to have transported this 
force to the shores of England, was defeated with great loss by that 
of the English and Dutch, and the attempt was, for the present, 
abandoned. 

During the continental campaigns of 1692 and 1693, the French 
were almost uniformly successful ; they took a number of strong- 
holds, and, intercepting the great Smyrna fleet, captured and 
destroyed property to the amount of a million sterling. In the 
following year, however, the advantage was upon the side of the 
allies. The machinations of the Stuart party still continued — Marl- 
borough, Godolphin, and other influential politicians, still holding 
forth hopes of a restoration. Owing to the treachery of these men, 
an expedition against Brest was defeated with much loss. 

On the 21st of December, 1694, the queen died in the thirty-third 
year of her age. Her duties as a wife and daughter had for a num- 
ber of years been in constant collision; and it is not too miich to 
say, that she sacrificed the latter to the former more than justice 
demanded. Almost the only point on which sympathy can be felt 
for James, is that of the undutiful conduct of his children — whose 
demeanour toward their discrowned and exiled father has been com- 
pared to that of the daughters of King Lear. 

In the campaign of 1695, William, to the great joy of the allies, 
took the strong city of Namur, after a siege of seven weeks. In the 
new parliament, which met this year, an act was passed, regulating 
trials for treason upon more humane and liberal principles. The 
coinage, which was in a miserably debased state, was also restored 
to its purity, under the superintendance of Sir Isaac Newton. 

Plots for the assassination of "William had already been detected, 
and in February, 1696, a most nefarious scheme for this purpose 
was discovered, originated by the Jacobites, and probably sanctioned 



ENGLAND (393 

by James himself. Upon trial, seven persons were found guilty, 
and executed. Sir John Fenwick, who had contrived to suppress 
the evidence against him, was also beheaded, on th 3 odious authority 
of an attainder. An expedition of invasion, ,vhich was to have 
accompanied this plot, failed, on its detection. This was the last 
attempt of the partisans of James, and in September, 1697, the 
treaty of Ryswick restored peace to the nations so lon|_^ . ngaged in 
hostilities, Louis resigned the most of his conquests, and acknowl- 
edged William king, in spite of the protests and manifestoes of 
James — the latter, on account of his faith, or bigotry, rejecting a 
proposal that the succession should be settled on his son, if he might 
receive a Protestant education. 

The parliament of 1699, jealous of the king and the foreign troops, 
reduced the army to seven thousand men, and expelled the Dutch 
guards and French Huguenots, who had fought so bravely for their 
liberties. William was so deeply affronted at this measure that he 
contemplated resigning the government, and returning to Holland. 
The next year, a most cruel measure, punishing priests and disin- 
heriting Catholics, was passed; but owing to the better feeling of 
the nation at large, remained inoperative. 

The Princess Anne being now without children, the parliament 
of 1701 passed an act regulating the succession. By this "Act of 
Settlement," the crown, after her death, was secured to the Princess 
Sophia of Hanover, and her heirs. This lady was a Protestant, and 
niece to Charles I. Other important and liberal provisions were 
made concerning the rights of the crown, the judiciary, and other 
important matters. Great indignation was excited by the conduct 
of Louis, who, in pursuance of a pledge made to James, on his 
death-bed, had publicly recognised his son as king of England. 
Stringent measures were passed against all supporters of this claim, 
and ninety thousand men were voted for the two services. 

The king did not long enjoy the freshly-awakened confidence and 
support of the nation. His health had been gradually failing, and 
in February, 1702, he met with an accident which eventually proved 
fatal. His horse stumbled, and broke his collar-bone. No fears of 
the result were at first entertained ; but a fever set in, and on the 
7th of March he expired, in the fifty-second year of his age, and 
the fourteenth of his reign. 

This prince was undoubtedly the most able monarch of his time. 
He was skilful in war, politic, and tolerant though, as in the cas^ 



^J04 THIS PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

«tf Glencoe, he had little compunction at shedding blood. The cold- 
ness and formality of his manners prevented him from ever becoming 
uersonallj popular. 



ij JjJi Jjo^ di di iXJi iLh c&Oa uni^ iX JL J> 



ANNE. 

The queen at her accession was in her thirty-eighth year. She 
was a firm Protestant, and strongly inclined to the Tory party, 
which she preferred in forming her ministry. The abilities of 
Marlborough, despite his well-known treachery, procured him the 
command of the forces, and the chief charge of the foreign interests 
of the nation. On the 15th of May, according to the previous 
agreement, war was declared against France by England, Holland, 
and Germany. Marlborough, who commanded the allied army, 
effected little during this campaign, being hampered by the vexa- 
tious conduct of the Dutch deputies accompanying the army. 
An expedition of great force, planned by William, was now sent 
against Cadiz, which was regarded as a portion of the French 
dominions. It retired, however, without effecting any thing except 
the taking of plunder ; but falling in, on the passage home, with the 
great treasure-fleet of the Spaniards, captured and destroyed property 
to the amount of eight millions of dollars. The contest entitled the 
" War of Succession," in which England was now engaged for eight 
years, was founded on an alliance made by William and other con- 
tinental powers to repress the ambition of Louis, who, by intrigue, 
had succeeded in placing his grandson Philip on the throne of Spain. 

The allies, impeded by various causes, effected little in 1703 and 
the early part of 1704, the genius of Marlborough being still 
restrained by the pertinacious deputies. In August, however, 
assisted by Prince Eugene, he engaged the French and Bavarian 
army of fifty-six thousand men, under Marshal Tallard and others, 
at Blenheim, with a slightly inferior force. After a desperate con- 
test, the enemy was entirely defeated, with a loss of forty thousand 
men. Other successes followed this remarkable victory, and the 



ENGLAND. 



695 



duke received splendfCT testimonials of gratitude from the queen anc 
parliameiU. In the same year, the strong fortress of Gibraltar was 
taken by an English force under Sir George Rooke. 

In 1705, little was effected in Flanders, the principal seat of war, 
but an expedition to Spain, headed by Lord Peterborough and the 
Archduke Charles, (the rival claimant to the Spanish crown,) was 
very successful, and several provinces espoused the cause of the lat- 
ter. In 1706, Marlborough, with an army of about sixty thousand 
men, encountered that of the French, of equal force, under Marshal 
Villeroy, near Ramillies. The latter again sustained a terrible 
defeat, with a loss of thirteen thousand men. A large part of the 
disputed territory surrendered. Negotiations for peace being ineffect- 
ual, Marlborough again took the field in 1707, but with little result 
of importance. In Spain, the allies were entirely routed by Philip, 
and the revolted provinces were again subdued. In 1708, a fleet 
fitted out by Louis, and commanded by the son of James II., (called 
in England the Pretender,) sailed for Scotland ; but owing to storms 
and the presence of an English squadron, returned unsuccessful. 
In the same summer, Marlborough besieged and took the towns of 
Lisle and Ghent. Louis was now desirous of peace; but the allies 
insisted on such unreasonable terms, that he renewed the war. On 
the 11th of September, 1709, occurred the hardest-fought battle of 
the whole war. Marlborough and Eugene, with ninety thousand 
men, had invested the town of Mons, and Marshal Villars, with an 
equal force, hastened to its relief. The two armies encountered near 
Malplaquet. The French lost fourteen thousand men, and the allies 
twenty thousand ; but the advantage remained with the latter. Afi;er 
another ineffectual attempt at negotiation, in 1710, further hostilities 
ensued; and in Spain, Charles, with twenty-three thousand men, 
defeated his rival, Philip, and compelled him to quit the capital. 
The successes of the duke of Vendome, however, restored the failing 
fortunes of Philip. The English and German allies Avere captured 
or discomfited, and the conquest of Spain became evidently hopeless. 

Meanwhile, a most important political event had occurred at home. 
The necessity of a closer union between the kingdoms of England 
and Scotland had been deeply felt ever since the accession of James 
L, with whom it had been a favourite object. This feeling was 
strongly increased by an independent and rather dictatorial resolu- 
tion of the Scottish parliament, called the "Act of Security" — a 
measure which called forth a still more violent response from the 



QQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. 

English, assembly. By adroit management, however, the measure 
was entertained by both, and the queen was empowered to appoint 
commissioners from both kingdoms, for the purpose of a settlement. 
These met at Westminster, in 1706, and, after some dispute, agreed 
upon the particulars. Of these, the most important were, the 
succession of the house of Hanover and the distribution of repre- 
sentation and taxation — a share in each, very feebly proportioned 
to her population, being, in consideration of her poverty, allotted to 
Scotland. When these terms were made known in that country, a 
storm of public indignation arose. Some just, and many ridiculous 
objections were urged, and two-thirds of the nation were vehemently 
opposed to the scheme. Nevertheless, when their parliament met 
on the 13th of October, 1706, the court party was sufficiently power- 
ful to carry the measure — a result due, partly to the necessity of the 
case, and partly to the "Equivalent," a sum of three hundred and 
ninety-eight thousand pounds, paid under pretext of recompense for 
the loss of customs and excise, but in reality as a fund for bribery. 
On the 1st of May, 1707, the two nations were incorporated under 
one government, by the name of Great Britain. On signing the deed 
which destroyed the separate existence of his kingdom, the Scottish 
commissioner coolly remarked, laying down his pen, "And there is 
tne end of an auld sang." 

Daring all the time of the war, a fierce struggle had been main- 
tained between the Whig and Tory parties, involving, however, 
few principles of national importance. In this selfish warfare for 
political power, the queen's private feelings and attachments deter- 
mined the result. She had, for many years, been warmly attached 
to the duchess of Marlborough, whose husband had thus been 
loaded with wealth and honours. This ambitious and imperious 
woman was supplanted in the queen's affections by Mrs, Masham, one 
of her waiting-women, of whose influence the Tories, directed by 
Harley, took advantage. The government, however, was principally 
Whig in 1710, but was overthrown by a ridiculous incident. Doc- 
tor Sacheverell, a fanatical high Tory preacher, had in a sermon 
reasserted all the exploded doctrines of passive obedience, &c., and 
had vehemently attacked th:e administration. Godolphin, the treas- 
urer, had the folly to bring him to trial ; the whole Tory party 
espoused his cause; and the nation generally, considering him a 
martyr, were enthusiastic in his favour. A lenient sentence was 
regarded as a victory by the Tories, and Harley, sure of the temper 



ENGLAND. 



697 



of tlie nation, and aided by liis confederate, Mrs. Masham, prevailed 
on the queen to dismiss her ministry. Godolphin, who had brought 
about the union, was suddenly deprived of his office, and Marlbo- 
rough, whose genius had so long sustained the honour of the English 
arms, was treated with great indignity. At the entreaty of the allies 
and of the Whig party, however, he still consented to retain his 
command; and in 1711 made another successful campaign, distin- 
guished, by extraordinary military science. But peace had be* 
resolved on by the new administration, and secret negotiations hau 
been commenced, with France. The proposed terms, being madi? 
public, excited strong popular indignation; and .Harley (now Juorr^ 
Oxford, high-treasurer,) determined on the destruction of Marlbo- 
rough, regarding his success and popularity as the chief obstacle. 
The queen dismissed him from all his employments, and charges of 
peculation and dishonesty were preferred against him before the 
houses of parliament. He was, indeed, of a grasping and avarici'^^"^? 
disposition, and had received large sums for his own benefit frc; 
the allies and others, but only in accordance with prescriptive custon 
His defence was so forcible, that the ministry thought it unwise i. 
proceed to extremities. 

The army of the English and their allies in the Netherlands, 
under Prince Eugene, amounted to an hundred and twenty thousand 
men. The French, with a smaller force, weakened and dispirited, 
could hardly have made any effectual resistance ; and it seems prob- 
able that they might have marched into the enemies' country, and 
dictated terms of peace under the walls of Paris. Nevertheless, 
Oxford, who is supposed to have been secretly in the interest of the 
Stuarts, determined on peace; and, on the 14th of April, 1713, the 
peace of Utrecht was concluded, to the rage and despair of the con- 
tinental powers. Nothing of any importance had been attained by 
this long and disastrous contest. Philip retained the throne of Spain, 
and certain minor advantages were granted to England. The cause 
of the allies on the continent was, for the most part, deserted and 
betrayed. During this treaty, which overthrew all the efforts of his 
former administration, died Lord Godolphin — a minister of the high- 
est talents, and so disinterested, in that corrupt age, that even Swift, 
the inveterate abuser of his government, admitted his freedom 
from venality. Marlborough, his intimate political friend, went to 
reside abroad. 

An attempt, supported by the Whigs, was made at this time to 



G9S 1-E PEOPLE'S B( )K OF HISTOEY. 

dissolve tlie union, and failed only by a majority of four. St. John, 
Viscount Bolingbroke, a man of splendid talents and dissolute habits, 
in 1714 contrived, through the influence of Mrs. Mashara, to expel 
from officf. Lis colleague, Oxford. His expectation of being prime 
minister ^^s, however, disappointed by the sudden illness of the 
queen, who, for some time, had been failing. She was induced by 
those around her to fill the vacant post with the duke of Shrews- 
bury, and in a short time expired, in the fiftieth year of her age, 
and the thirteenth of her reign. The intrigues of the Stuarts and 
their adherents had been persevering, and seemed likely to be 
irowned with success ; but they were disconcerted by the superior 
address of their opponents; and the elector of Hanover, son of the 
Princess Sophia, was proclaimed king under the title of George I. 

Anne was the last of the Stuart family who sat upon the throne 
of Great Britain. Her capacities were small, and she was almost 
entirely governed by her personal favourites. She was always popu- 
lar, however, and received from her people the universal title of 
"good Queen Anne." 

During this and the preceding reign, the constitution had received 
many improvements. The limits of the prerogative were settled, 
and the judiciary, empowered to retain their of&ces during good 
conduct, became really independent. A national bank was estab 
lished, and paper money was introduced. The more questionable 
advantages of a standing army and a national debt were also attained 
Science and literature flourished eminently, and were patronized 
by intelligent ministers. Sir Isaac Newton was master of the Mint, 
Locke a commissioner, ai\d Addison secretary of state. Swift and 
other men of literary eminence were influential, and well rewarded. 



ENGLAND. 



699 



CHAPTEH XII?, 



GEORGE I. AND GEORGE II. 



The new monarcTi, fifty-four years of age, was a foreigner, entirely 
ignorant of tlie language, laws, and manners of his adopted kingdom. 
He was a man of prudence and courage, but rather low in his tastes, 
and unintellectual. He landed in England on the 18th of Septem- 
ber, 1714, and selected a new ministry, almost entirely Whig. 
Marlborough, who had been a strenuous supporter of his accession, 
was again made commander-in-chief A new parliament, strongly 
Whig, met in March, 1715, and immediately impeached Oxford, 
Bolingbroke, and other members of the late government. The first 
Avas committed to the tower, and others fled to the continent, and 
entered the service of the Pretender, James III. At the end of two 
years, Oxford was released. Bolingbroke in 1723 procured a reversal 
of his attainder, returned to England, and again took an active 
part in political affairs. 

The pretender and his partisans had been making secret prepara- 
tions; and on the 6th of September, 1715, the earl of Mar raised 
his standard in the Highlands, and assembled a force of ten thousand 
men. A similar movement was made in the north of England, but 
was easily suppressed by the forces of government. On the 13th of 
November, the duke of Argyle, with four thousand men, engaged 
Mar, who had more than twice that number, at Sheriff Muir. Five 
hundred were slain on each side, and both claimed the victory. On 
the 22d of December, James landed in person, but perceiving the 
hopelessness of his cause, returned to France, whither he was fol- 
lowed by most of the insurgent chiefs. The forces were disbanded. 
Only twenty-nine persons were executed in consequence of this 
attempt. 

In 1716, a bill was passed, changing the term of the duration of 
parliament, from three to seven years. Government at this time, as 
well as long afterwards, was exceedingly corrupt. The king's Ger- 
man mistresses and favourites were continually impatient for estates 
and titles, and possessed sufficient influence to determine the fate of 
measures and of ministries. A bill, however, which George (to 



700 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK C/ HISTOEY. 

gratify his hatred to the prince of Wales, by injuring the prerogative) 
would willingly have signed, for limiting the number of peers, 
was defeated. 

In 1720, a most extraordinary delusion seized upon the people. 
The South Sea Company, an unsuccessful establishment of 1711, 
made a large financial contract with government, and, being in the 
(lands of unprincipled men, used every effort to inspire the public 
with a belief in its unbounded resources. To such an extent did the 
infatuation reach, (founded on improbable stories of gold mines and 
enormous profits in trade,) that the stock went up to a thousand per 
cent., and all classes hastened to invest their property in the treach- 
erous concern. Many, by speculating in the stock, made fortunes; 
but the bubble soon burst, and thousands were ruined. The king's 
mistresses and several members of government were deeply con- 
cerned in this iniquitous transaction. 

Lord Townshend and Eobert Walpole, two men of high ability, 
who had lost their places in the government for a time, were enabled, 
by the odium which this transaction cast on the ministry, to regain 
1 high position — the first becoming secretary, and the latter first lord 
of the treasury. In 1722, died the duke of Marlborough, the most 
able commander, and one of the most sagacious statesmen of his age. 
He possessed many excellent and amiable traits of character, though 
his public life was stained by treachery, and his private life by covet- 
ousness. The remainder of the reign of George I. was chequered 
by few incidents worth recording. An unsuccessful plot of the 
Stuart faction was detected; one conspirator was executed, and 
Bishop Atterbury, with other persons of high rank, was commit- 
ted to prison. In Ireland, a great excitement, fomented by Dean 
Swift, was occasioned by the attempted issue of a debased copper 
coin, entitled, from the name of the patentee, "Wood's half-pence." 
So great was the clamour, that government was compelled to retract 
from the measure. 

During this reign, the foreign relations of the kingdom were 
entirely changed, a close alliance existing with France and other 
powers, and a state of jealousy or hostility toward Spain and the 
empire. Sir George Bying, in 1718, destroyed a Spanish fleet of 
twenty-seven sail of the line, off Sicily. In 1725, Admiral Hosier 
made an unsuccessful expedition to Spanish America, and perished, 
with great numbers of his men, from disorders incident to the cli- 
mate. The king died in his yearly journey to Hanover, on the 11th 



ENGLAND. 



701 



of June, 1727. He was in tlie sixty-eiglitli year of his age, and in the 
thirteenth of a reign distinguished by few events of national interest. 

His son George II. ascended the throne at the age of forty-four. 
Though more familiar with English customs, his tastes were as Ger- 
man as those of his father; and both seem to have been more 
solicitous for the welfare of their petty electorate of Hanover, than 
for that of the splendid empire over which they were called to reign. 
Walpole (now Sir Eobert) continued for nearly fifteen years to 
hold the chief control of government, his colleague, Townsend, 
resigning in 1730. During all this time there continued a fierce 
opposition, composed of Tories and disaffected Whigs. Among his 
most formidable adversaries were Pulteney and Bolingbroke, who 
now began to make a new figure in the political world. The chief 
object of the opposition, as is too generally the case, was to get 
the government, with its enormous and profitable patronage, into 
their own hands; but "Walpole, who had reduced the art of bribery 
to a perfect system, Avas always enabled to command majorities in 
the house. His administration was, however, able and tolerably 
enlightened; but his favourite scheme of excise and customs, very 
similar to that now adopted, (the warehousing and bonding system,) 
was finally defeated in 1733, by the clamour of the ignorant and 
interested. The "Septennial Act" was also warmly attacked. 

In 1737 the queen, a firm friend of Walpole, and a woman of 
excellent character, died. She possessed far greater talents for gov- 
ernment than the king himself, who trusted almost implicitly to her 
advice, and during his frequent visits to Hanover, always lefi; the 
control of affairs in her hands. 

For many years England, guided by her skilful and pacific minis- 
ter, had been at peace; but in 1739 the nation, irritated by the 
insulting demeanour of Spain in regard to her colonies, compelled 
him to declare war. Admiral Vernon, with only six ships, took and 
destroyed the town of Porto Bello; but failed in a more important 
expedition against Carthagena. In 1740, Anson sailed upon his 
celebrated voyage. After losing all his vessels but one, and doing 
much injury to the Spanish on the western coast of South America, 
he stretched into the Pacific, and, having captured a galleon of 
immense value, returned by the Cape of Good Hope, after an absence 
of four years, during which, like Drake, he had circumnavigated the 
globe. The general ill-success of this war, though he had strongly 
opposed ii, was thrown upon Walpole ; and strenuous efforts were 



702 I^E PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

made to remove him from office. A parliament newly elected con 
tained a majority of his opponents; and in February, 1742, lie 
resigned his office, and was created Lord Orford. He survived the 
loss ^f his power but three years. The peaceful and able adminis- 
tration of this firm and consistent Whig minister presents less lustre 
than that of others, from the corrupt means by which he acquired 
and perpetuated his power. 

Of the leading men who opposed or succeeded him in the adminis- 
tration, the most distinguished was William Pitt, already conspicuous 
for his talents. Henry Fox, the rival of Pitt, was also a man of 
great ability and eloquence. Murray (Lord Mansfield), Conway, 
Townsend, and others had already began to play a conspicuous 
part. The ministry, however, was now chiefly directed by the duke 
of Newcastle, Lord Carteret (afterwards Granville), and some others. 

By virtue of a treaty with the empress of Austria, (now at war 
with Frederick the Great,) a subsidy was granted, and a force of 
sixteen thousand men was despatched to her assistance. The king 
of England, eager to acquire martial renown, joined it in person in 
1743, and, at the age of sixty, distinguished himself at the battle of 
Dettingen. France next entered the contest, and the English, with 
their allies, commanded by the duke of Cumberland he king's son, 
were defeated by Marshal Saxe, at Fontenoy, with i loss of ten 
thousand men. 

It was now resolved by the court of France to embarrass the 
British, by assisting the long-neglected house of Stuart; and in 
August, 1745, Charles Edward, son of the pretender, landing with 
a few adherents, was joined by many of the Highland clans. He 
moved rapidly southward, entered Edinburgh, and took up his 
abode in Holyrood House, the ancient palace of his ancestors. At 
Preston Pans he completely defeated General Cope, who had been 
sent against him, and then, with a force of only five thousand men, 
marched in the most daring manner into England. Taking Carlisle 
and Manchester, he advanced as far as Derby ; but finding himself 
joined by few, was compelled to retreat. He gained one more vic- 
tory in January, 1746, but on the 16th of April, with four thousand 
men, was defeated at Culloden, by the duke of Cumberland, with c- 
yreatly superior force. The brutal victor ordered that no quartet 
ihould be given; and the most atrocious acts of cruelty and military 
licentiousness followed. The unfortunate chevalier, after undergo- 
ing great hardships, and expei'encing many romantic adventures^ 




CHARLES EDWARD (CALLED THE PREI'ENDER). 

He -TO-as the grandson of James II., the exiled king of England, and m >iis 
youjiger days a prince of great enterprise and chivalrous courage. In 174;"), 
Twith only .seven attendants, he landed on the coast of Scotland, resolved on 
the perilous attempt to recover the throne of his ancestors After a brief career 
of surprising success and invasion, he -was compelled to retreat, and his little 
arm.y, at the hattle of Culloden, was cut to pieces by the English, under the 
duke of Cumberland. He escaped, amid the greatest perils and sufferings, to 
France, and passed the remainder of his life in obscurity and lamentable sen- 
sual indulgences. 



ENGLAND. 



703 



escaped into France. Nearly two hundred prisoners, some of them 
of high rank, were executed for their share in this attempt. 

'iranville, who had principally controlled affairs since the fall of 
Walpoit., was, in 1744, supplanted by Pelham and his brother the 
duke of Newcastle, a weak, but intriguing man. Pitt also received 
an important office. In 1748, after an immense effusion of blood 
and treasure, a general peace was signed, leaving all parties much 
the same as they were at the commeirC^ment of the contest. Anson, 
Warren, and Hawke had fully sustained the reputation of the 
English navy. 

In 1751 Frederick, prince of Wales, who had always been at 
bitter enmity with his father, died, and his son George became heir- 
apparent to the three kingdoms. But a few years of peace had 
elapsed, when a fresh war with France was brought on by the con- 
flicting claims of the two nations to extensive tracts in North 
America. 

In 1754 arms were taken up, and young Major Washington was 
compelled to surrender to a superior force of French and Indians. 
The events which followed belong properly to American history, 
and may be very briefly detailed. G /leral Braddock, with a con- 
siderable force, was surprised, defeateJ, and slain; and in 1756 war 
was formally declared. In this year also commenced the famous 
"Seven Years' War," in which all the powers of Central Europe 
were engaged — Frederick the Great, supported by England, having 
forcibly seized the Austrian province of Silesia. 

Great fears of the invasion of England were entertained, and a 
body of Hessian and other foreign troops were imported for the 
defence of the country. The first event of importance to England 
was the failure of Admiral Byng, from a too strict adherence to 
naval tactics, to capture the French fleet. The king and ministry 
basely yielded to the popular clamour against him, and this brave 
and patriotic man was judicially murdered by a court martial. At 
his execution, he displayed the highest calmness and courage, effect- 
ually refuting the charge of cowardice which his enemies had 
endeavoured to fasten on him. 

After a curious vacillation of power, during which Pitt, Newcastle, 
Fox, and others in turn controlled the ministry for a brief period, 
the former became the actual minister, (Newcastle retaining the title,) 
and, by his boldness and genius, rescued the nation from the depth 
of despondency. Misfortune, however, continued for a time. An 



704 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. 

expedition against Eoclifort utterly failed, and the duke of Cum- 
berland, witli an army of forty thousand Hessians and Hanoverians, 
was forced to capitulate, and abandon the electorate to the French. 
In America, Montcalm had greatly extended the strength and 
territory of the latter. 

In 1758 the arms of England were more successful; and in the 
following year, great successes awaited them. Boscawen, in the 
Mediterranean, and Hawke, in the Channel, gained decided naval 
victories. In America several forts had been seized, and the city of 
Quebec was taken by storm by the gallant General Wolfe, who, with 
his rival, Montcalm, expired on the field of battle. The battle of 
Minden, on the continent, in which the English gained much distinc- 
tion, occurred about the same time. On the 25th of October, 1760, 
the king expired of apoplexy, in the seventy-seventh year of his 
age, and the thirty-first of his reign. His grandson, George III., 
succeeded him. 

During these two reigns, the monarch being a foreigner, and 
compelled to govern according to the will of majorities, the Whigs 
had retained almost the entire control of government. The most 
shameless venality had prevailed, and all branches of munici- 
pal government were indifferently administered. The police were 
inefficient, and crime, consequently, was of frequent occurrence. 
Compared with the present day, morals and manners were in a very 
uncultivated state. 



GEORGE III. 

The young kmg, at the age of twenty-two, came to the throne 
under most favourable circumstances. The country was prosperous 
and united, and his parliament was generous and loyal. The war 
was still continued, though the king, whose predilections were for 
the Tory party, was anxious for peace, that he might dismiss Pitt, 
the principal leader of the Whigs. France had suffered greatly, 
especially in her commerce and colonies, and was anxious for the 



ENGLAND. 



705 



cessation of hostilities. Negotiation, however, was fruitless. Pitt, 
finding that he could not obtain the consent of his colleagues to a 
war with Spain, resigned his ofiice, and retired on a pension of three 
thousand pounds. 

In 1761 the king was married to Charlotte, a German princess, 
and shortly afterwards war was declared against Spain, which had 
evinced hostile intentions. The duke of Newcastle, who had man- 
aged to keep in office for more than thirty years, now resigned, and 
Lord Bute, a Scottish nobleman, became prime minister. In March, 
1762, a powerful expedition was despatched against Cuba, and, after 
a protracted and difficult contest, took the wealthy city of Havana, 
with shipping and treasure to the amount of three millions of pounds. 
By the taking of Manilla and two rich galleons, an equal amount 
of plunder was obtained. France lost a number of her possessions 
in the West Indies. 

The expense of carrying on these wars had, however, been enor- 
mous. France was desirous of peace, and, in spite of the opposition 
of Pitt and his faction, a treaty (the Peace of Fontainbleau) was 
signed at Paris in February, 1763. By this agreement, England 
retained Canada and many of her conquests in the West Indies 
and elsewhere. Others she restored. Her national debt had been 
increased seventy-five millions of pounds. 

Lord Bute, who was unpopular, and personally disliked by the 
king, retired from office, and Grenville, with his colleagues, came 
into power. Great annoyance was occasioned to the king and minis- 
try by the factious conduct of a demagogue, called Wilkes, who 
assailed them with great talent and personality in a paper called the 
North Briton. He was generally supported by the people, who, in 
spite of (or perhaps on account of) the prosecution of government, 
adhered to him faithfully. He was, however, outlawed, and com- 
pelled to leave the kingdom. Eeturning in 1768, his sentence was 
reversed, and he was repeatedly elected to parliament, and as often 
expelled by the majority. He finally became lord mayor of London. 
To Grenville succeeded the marquis of Eockingham, in 1765, and 
to him Mr. Pitt, who, after organizing a ministry which he could not 
control, resigned office for ever, and retired in 1768, with the title 
of Lord Chatham. The duke of Grafton, whom he left in office, 
and who had been bitterly assailed by the celebrated Junius, gave 
place in 1770 to Lord North, whose administration proved one of 
the most eventful in English history. 
45 



706 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

For several years previous, a storm had been brewing upon the 
western shores of the Atlantic. The prudent Walpole had refused 
to lay a tax upon the North American colonies; but in 1764 the 
king himself compelled Grenville to introduce a bill asserting the 
expediency of stamp duties on the colonies. Strong remonstrances 
were made by the colonists; but in 1765 the bill passed, and Avas 
met by the most determined resistance. It was repealed the follow- 
ing year, but in 1767 duties were imposed on various articles. These, 
except the tax on tea, were taken off in 1770. In 1773 the ships 
of the East India Company, carrying a supply of the obnoxious 
article, were not permitted to land it ; and a portion was forcibly 
thrown into the sea in Boston harbour, by a party of citizens dis- 
guised as Indians. Eetaliatory proceedings were immediately insti- 
tuted, and the provinces made zealous and patriotic preparations 
for an armed resistance. 

The long and desperate struggle which followed, belongs properly 
to American history, and may be briefly stated. A general alliance 
for mutual defence was made among the numerous colonies on the 
Atlantic. By the result of a new election for parliament, it was 
obviously the determination of the English people to reduce their 
revolted provinces by force, the celebrated Burke vainly attempting 
a reconciliation. The first blood was shed at the little town of 
Lexington, in April, 1775; and Boston, where the English troops 
were stationed under General Gage, was soon surrounded by twenty 
thousand of the American militia, eager to avenge the death of their 
countrymen. The battle of Bunker's Hill, where the English, in 
attempting to drive a small body of troops from their intrenchments, 
lost a thousand men, was the first action of importance. George 
Washington, already distinguished in the French war, was intrusted 
with the command of the provincial forces — a task which he fulfilled 
with wonderful courage, skill and perseverance. He blockaded 
Boston till the spring of 1776, (a daring, but unsuccessful attempt on 
Canada being made meanwhile,) and finally compelled the English 
garrison to evacuate it. 

The provincial forces were defeated with great loss on Long 
Island, by General Howe, and the city of New York, surrendering, 
was held by the British during the remainder of the war. On the 
4th of July, 1776, a general congress declared the independence of 
the colonies, and all prospect of an adjustment became hopeless. 
In 1777 the Americans were defeated at Brandy wine, but retrieved 



ENGLAND. 



707 



this disaster by the capture of General Burgojne, and his entire 
army, of nearly six thousand men, at Saratoga. 

This success decided the court of France, which acknowledged 
the independence of the states, and supplied them with a fleet and 
other assistance, thus recommencing hostilities with England; and 
in 1779, Spain also joined the hostile alliance. In America, the war 
was conducted with alternate fortune. The brave provincials, though 
suffering extremely from the want of food, clothing, and shelter, 
still fought desperately, and, on the whole, maintained their ground. 

In 1780, Sir George Eodney defeated a Spanish fleet; a French 
one, which he also engaged, escaping through the incapacity of his 
officers. He also relieved Gibraltar, which was besieged. Clinton 
and Cornwallis were highly successful in the southern states. In 
the North, at this time, occurred the celebrated treason of Arnold, 
and the execution of the unfortunate Major Andr^, as a spy. 

The Whig party had been generally in favour of conciliatory 
measures; but the nation was mostly desirous of carrying on the 
war. The idea of a dismemberment of the empire was indeed 
generally regarded with great aversion; and in 1778, Lord Chatham, 
who had been a vehement advocate for conciliation, came to the 
house, though suffering severely from disease, and spoke in the most 
impassioned manner against a motion for acknowledging the inde- 
pendence of the states. Having finished his speech, this great 
statesman fell backwards in convulsions, and four days afterwards 
expired, in the seventieth year of his age. 

About the same time, a terrible riot, caused by excitement against 
the Catholics, and instigated by Lord George Gordon, prevailed for 
some time in London. A mob, composed of fifty thousand fanatical 
Protestants, destroyed the Catholic chapels and dwelling houses, 
burned or threw open the prisons, and plundered the residences of 
Lord Mansfield and other obnoxious persons. It was finally sup- 
pressed by the military, many of the rioters being killed. 

The blockade of Gibraltar still continued, and it was repeatedly 
attacked and defended with the most desperate courage ; but neither 
bombardment nor famine could subdue the resolution of the garri- 
son. The Dutch had joined in the hostile alliance against England, 
but were defeated at sea, and lost the island of St. Eustathius, with 
much valuable property. The war in the southern states was still 
protracted; but on the 19th of October, 1781, Lord Cornwallis, with 
his whole army, was compelled to surrender at Yorktown, to a com- 



708 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. 

bined force of Americans and French. This event effectually 
terminated the war. 

The administration of North, unpopular on account of this and 
other misfortunes, grew weaker and weaker; it was compelled to 
sustain the united attacks of Pitt, (son of the earl of Chatham,) of 
Fox, and Sheridan, the most brilliant orators of the day, and finally, 
in March, 1782, the cabinet was dissolved, and the offices filled with 
the most distinguished members of the opposition. 

In the West Indies, Eodney had completely defeated the French 
admiral, De Grasse, capturing or destroying most of his fleet. Gib- 
raltar was besieged and bombarded by more than an hundred 
thousand men ; but by its impregnable position and the gallantr}'^ 
of its defenders, maintained a successful resistance. Negotiations 
had, however, been for some time carried on, and, in 1783, a general 
peace was concluded, by which the independence of the United 
States was acknowledged, and the conquests of England, France, and 
Spain, were mutually restored. Another hundred millions of pounds 
had been added to the national debt. 

By the most singular coalition of North and Fox, the ministry, 
headed by Lord Shelburne, was overthrown, and the former oppo- 
nents entered office together. This union was, however, too unnatural 
to last long, and the scheme of Mr. Fox, to effect a change in the 
affairs of India, having failed to command a majority, they retired 
in their turn. Pitt, at the age of twenty -four, now formed a new 
ministry, of which he was the head; and, with a single interval, 
continued to hold the post of prime minister during the remainder 
of his life. The opposition, henceforth, was led by Fox. 

The new minister was, however, in a decided minority himself; 
but, with wonderful tact and perseverance, allowed the opposition 
to become unpopular by defeating his measures. Then, dissolving 
parliament, he secured an immense majority at the next election, 
great numbers of the Whigs having lost their seats in the House 
of Commons. His power, however, was nearly overthrown in 1778, 
by the king's mental derangement. George, prince of Wales, and a 
friend of the opposition leaders, was about to be appointed prince- 
regent, though with very limited powers; but his father's sudden 
recovery, just before the passage of the bill, confirmed the ministry 
in their position, and disappointed the Whigs, who were daily expect- 
ing to step into office. 

During the incidents which have been narrated, remarkable events 



ENGLAND. 



709 



had transpired in India, already a most important member of the 
British empire. Elizabeth, in 1600, had first granted a charter to a 
company of merchants trading in the East. During that and the 
succeeding reigns, they established factories at Surat, Madras, Cal- 
cutta, and Bombay, In 1698, a rival company had obtained a 
charter, but in 1702, the two were consolidated into one, under the 
title of " The United East India Company." 

The hostilities with France had extended to this distant region, 
and Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry, had made him- 
self formidable by an alliance with a native prince. The English, 
threatened with expulsion from the country, took the part of a rival 
to the latter, and a French and Anglo-Indian war was commenced. 
In 1751, the affairs of the English were retrieved by the courage 
and genius of Robert Clive, who repeatedly defeated the allied 
French and natives, and finally destroyed the power of the former. 
In 1756 Calcutta was taken by Surajah Dowlah, a powerful native 
prince, jealous of the English power. A horrible scene followed 
this success. An hundred and forty-six of his unfortunate captives 
were shut up in a small dungeon, called the " Black Hole, " where 
all, except twenty-three, perished before morning, from the want of 
air and water. Clive, who was then at Madras, marched against the 
savage nabob, and compelled him to make peace and restitution. Soon 
after, finding him allied with the French, this enterprising general, 
with only three thousand men, attacked him at Plassey, where he 
was stationed with fifty thousand native troops, defeated and 
dethroned him. His successor, Meer Jaffier, bestowed great treas- 
ures on Clive and the company. In 1760, this successful adventurer 
returned to England, at the age of thirty -five, with an income of 
forty thousand pounds. Such abuses and rapacity, however, pre- 
vailed in his absence, that four years afterwards he was obliged to 
return, with the office of governor-general, to attempt a reform. In 
effecting this, he made so many enemies among the dishonest servants 
of the company, that an effort, though unsuccessful, was made to 
censure him in parliament. After having raised the company to 
great wealth and power, he died at the age of forty-nine, by his 
own hand. 

In 1773, the notorious Warren Hastings was appointed governor, 
and by his career of rapacity and tyranny, earned himself an unen- 
viable memory. With great ability, he joined treachery and avarice; 
and so used his influence and his forces among the native powers, 



710 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

as to extort great sums of money, at the expense of every principle 
of honour and humanity. After a tyrannical reign of twelve years, 
he returned from India, laden with riches, and was soon after 
impeached for his various enormities by the House of Commons. 
On his trial before the Peers, in February, 1788, the eloquence of 
Burke, Fox, and Sheridan, displayed his crimes in the most glowing 
colours; his guilt was palpable; yet, by the artifices of his counsel 
and the influence of powerful friends, the case was protracted for 
seven years, and a judgment was finally given in his favour. 

The French Revolution, fraught with events of such importance 
to mankind, both for good and evil, broke out in 1789; and Eng- 
land, with other European nations, was soon involved in the alarming 
progress of affairs. To the Whig party, as to liberal men all over 
the world, it seemed at first the harbinger of a better era. The 
Tories regarded it with horror and alarm ; and Burke, heretofore 
one of the greatest ornaments and supports of the opposition, openly 
quarrelled with Fox, Sheridan, and other friends, and joined the 
ministerial party. An agitation of Parliamentary Reform, perhaps 
urged forward by the example of France, was opposed and sup- 
pressed by Pitt, himself formerly the author of a similar movement. 
His policy toward France had been one of neutrality ; but a dispute 
was brought about by the interference of England in behalf of the 
Dutch. On the 21st of January, 1793, Louis, the king of France, 
was executed ; and, twelve days afterwards, the Convention declared 
war against England. The Whigs now separated, a part joining the 
ministry upon the war question ; and the remainder, headed by Fox, 
subsiding into a powerless opposition and minority. 

Treaties of alliance against France were made with most of the 
continental powers, but owing to mismanagement, and to the cour- 
age and patriotism of the French, were of little avail. Pitt, though 
of great talents as an orator, had no genius for war, and wasted 
vast sums in fruitless expeditions and in subsidizing greedy allies. 
His forces, after suffering great hardships, were driven from Holland 
by the French ; and Toulon, which had been occupied by Lord Hood, 
was captured by the genius of Napoleon Bonaparte, then a young 
officer of artillery. The navy was more successful, and Lords Howe 
and Bridport each defeated a squadron of the enemy. 

An attempt at negotiation, in 1796, was unsuccessful ; and the 
financial pressure became so great, that the Bank of England was 
compelled to suspend payments. Great quantities of paper money 



ENGLAND. 



711 



were issued, prices rose, and a period of great apparent prosperity 
ensued. Much alarm was excited in the same year by a general 
mutiny in the navy. The sailors, whose health and comforts were 
shamefully neglected, rose in the Channel fleet and that of the ISTore ; 
imprisoned or sent ashore their officers, and kept possession of the 
vessels till parliament complied with their demands. Parker and 
other ringleaders at the Nore were, however, executed. The year 
was, nevertheless, distinguished by the naval victory of Jarvis, off 
Cape St. Vincent, over the Spanish fleet, and that of Duncan, off 
Camperdown, over the Dutch. 

Meanwhile, great disturbances had been gradually increasing in 
Ireland. That unfortunate country was oppressed in every possible 
way. It had but a shadow of political power ; the greatest abuses 
prevailed; and the miserable peasantry were the mere serfs of the 
landholders. It is remarkable that, although the Catholics had by 
far the greatest cause of complaint, the Protestants made the first 
movement towards reform, and secured an independent parliament. 
A spirit of republicanism, stimulated by the example of America 
and France, had grown up, and a formidable association of Protest- 
ant dissenters, called the " United Irishmen," with which the Catholic 
party soon formed an alliance, was organized in 1791. 

In Ulster, however, a mutual hatred subsisted between the oppo- 
site sects; and the Protestants, who had the superiority, formed 
themselves into a society called "Orangemen," (from William III.,) 
and barbarously expelled their rivals from the country. The new 
association, like any other which appeals to selfishness and bigotry, 
met with success, and spread rapidly over the kingdom. In 1796, a 
formidable armament, which, under command of General Hoche, 
sailed from France to assist the Irish republicans, was dispersed by 
storms, and retired, unable to effect a landing. 

A general rising against the English government had been 
meditated for some time. The ministry, thovigh aware of this inten- 
tion, were unable to get sufficient evidence against the leaders, and 
in 1797 commenced a system of the most frightful atrocity. Under 
pretence of searching for arms, (fee, they let loose upon the people 
a licentious and brutal soldiery, with instructions to u.se such tyr- 
anny as should rouse the people into a premature and less formidable 
rebellion. These horrible orders were fully carried out, and the 
miserable peasantry were, in all directions, murdered, tortured, and 
driven from their homes. The chiefs of the conspiracy, Lord 



712 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Edward Fitzgerald and a number of others, were detected and 
arrested. The persecutions which followed were of such an outrage- 
ous nature, that the object of government was at last attained, and 
the people, by a continuance of savage oppression, were forced into 
insurrection. The peasants were at first defeated, but in May, 1798, 
with fifteen thousand men, took the town of Wexford. A despe- 
rate attack, which they made upon New Eoss, was repulsed with the 
loss of a thousand of their number; during which, two hundred 
Protestant prisoners were brutally massacred by certain ruffians. A 
division of the English army was defeated near Gorey, but the insur- 
gents, twenty -seven thousand in number, were repulsed in Wicklow 
by a small force under General Needham, and their leader, Father 
Murphy, was killed by a cannon-ball. The English forces being 
finally concentrated, the insurgent army was defeated and dispersed 
at Vinegar-hill, their chief station, and war, in effect, thus ended. 
During this contest the Irish Catholics had murdered several 
hundred of their Protestant prisoners. But a far greater amount of 
butchery — accompanied, too, by studied and deliberate tortures — lies 
at the door of their foreign and Protestant conquerors. 

General Humbert, with about a thousand French, landed at Con- 
naught in August, 1798, and was joined by a portion of the peasantry. 
Being surrounded by Lord Cornwallis, with a large army, he was 
compelled to surrender, and the insurrection was thus finally crushed, 
after the loss of fifty thousand lives, and an immense destruction 
of property. 

The government now began to feel the necessity of union or 
extermination ; and Lord Castlereagh, to whom the affair was com- 
mitted, succeeded, by the most open and shameless bribery, in 
passing a bill for the former through the Irish parliament, and in 
March, 1800, the national existence of Ireland was effectually 
terminated. 

The British arms had, in the interval, gained some brilliant 
successes at sea. Nelson, in 1798, attacked the French squadron 
which had lately conveyed Napoleon and his forces to Egypt, and 
gained a complete victory in the Bay of Aboukir. An expedition 
to Holland, however, in the following year, commanded by the duke 
of York, met with a most disgraceful failure. In 1801, Mr. Pitt, 
unable to redeem his pledges to the Catholics, went out of office, and 
his place was taken by Mr. Addington, who was, however, supposed 
to be only a puppet, moved by the retired minister. In the same 




THt: DUXE Oh' WELLINGTON. 



AHrniifi Wjsllesley, Duke of Wellington, -was "born in the county of Meatb, 
in Ireland, on the first of May, 1769. His professional education was commenced 
at a very early period, and he entered the army as an ensign at the age of 
eighteen. The high military reputation \vhich he acquired in Indian "warfare, 
was sustained and widely extended by his Tenn.ark,ah]e achievements in the 
Penin.sular war, and, less deservedly, hy the victory of Waterloo, ■which British 
panegyrists are accustomed to attribute entirely to his talents 

Since the general peace, he has always taken an active part in political affairs, 
and has generally been found at the head, or in the ranks, of the ultra tcries 
Very recently, at the advanced age of eighty-one, the settlement of the British 
Cabinet was again placed in his hands; and his advice to the Queen, of recalling 
her moderate whig minister, Lord John Russell, was adopted 



ENGLAND. 



713 



year, Nelson, after a terrible battle at Copenbagen, defeated the 
Danes, who bad resisted tbe long-disputed "right of search" claimed 
by England. In March, 1802, General Abercrombie, in Egypt, 
defeated a portion of the French arm}', and compelled the remainder 
to surrender on honourable terms. Napoleon, having utterly routed 
the Austrians, made great preparations the same year for the inva- 
sion of England. Equal enthusiasm was manifested for its defence ; 
but in March, a treaty of peace was signed at Amiens, by which 
England restored a portion of her conquests. Her national debt 
had again been terribly augmented. 

The treacherous and perfidious conduct of the English ministry, 
in refusing to comply with the terms of the treaty, reawakened hos- 
tilities. By an equal act of perfidy, anticipating war, they issued 
secret orders — to seize all colonies of the French, and laid an 
embargo on their vessels. Napoleon retaliated by imprisoning all 
British subjects within his territories, and war was recommenced. 
To meet the crisis, Pitt again assumed the premiership, in May, 1804, 
just as Napoleon was proclaimed emperor at Paris. A brilliant 
victory soon strengthened the new administration. Admiral Nel- 
son, who had long been in search of the enemy, finally, on the 12th 
of October, 1805, encountered the combined French and Spanish 
fleets, under Yilleneuve, off Cape Trafalgar. With twenty-seven 
sail of the line, he completely defeated thirty-three. Nineteen of 
them were taken, but the British admiral, having won the most sig- 
nal naval victory on record, died from the effect of a wound which 
he received in the action. 

In January of the following year, expired Pitt himself, worn out 
with care, anxiety, and excess. This celebrated statesman died in 
his forty-seventh year, after a life chiefly spent in office, and labori- 
ously devoted to the service of his country. His genius and integrity 
no one can question ; but from an error common to the entire party 
which he represented, Great Britain was plunged into ruinous wars, 
and a terribly increased burden was laid upon posterity. 

The king, in spite of his antipathy to Mr. Fox, was compelled to 
appoint a new ministry, of which that gentleman was the chief. 
During his brief period of power, this great man exerted himself 
strenuously to procure a peace, and to secure the abolition of the 
African slave-trade. Death, however, closed his brilliant and patriotic 
career, and in a few months after his elevation, he reposed by the side 
of his great rival and predecessor in "Westminster Abbey. 



714 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

His favourite and philanthropic measure (against the slave-trade) 
was carried out by his party; but, having in 1807 introduced 
a bill for the relief of the Catholics, the ministry were dismissed 
from office, and their places supplied from the opposite party. Cas- 
tlereagh, Canning, Percival, and Eldon were the most prominent 
members of the new administration, which, owing to the prejudice 
against Catholicism, commanded a great majority. 

Napoleon, whose influence, after the conquest of Prussia, extended 
over all continental Europe, had declared the British islands to be 
in a state of blockade, and succeeded partially in preventing inter- 
course. The ministry, fearing lest he should seize upon the naval 
resources of Denmark, sent a piratical expedition against that power, 
which was unsuspicious of hostilities, took possession of her fleet, 
and captured a great number of her merchant vessels. This atrocious 
act excited the indignation of every civilized nation. 

In 1808 an expedition of considerable force was despatched to 
Portugal, to operate against the French. Sir Arthur Wellesley 
(afterwards Lord Wellington), with sixteen thousand troops, defeated 
Junot, the French commander, at Yimiero, and, by agreement, the 
French evacuated Portugal. On the 16th of January, 1809, Sir John 
Moore, with fourteen thousand men, repelled a furious attack of 
Marshal Soult, with a superior force, at Corunna, but lost his life in 
the engagement. Operations were much hampered by the folly of 
the ministry, which undertook to plan campaigns, and thus discon- 
certed the schemes of their ablest commanders. On the 27th of 
July, 1810, a terrible battle was fought at Talavera, between "Wel- 
lington and Victor, the French army being fifty thousand in number, 
and the British and Spaniards about the same. Seven thousand 
men were slain on each side without any very decisive result. 

On the same day, an expedition of forty thousand men sailed for 
Holland, but met with no success, the greater number perishing on 
the pestilential island of Walcheren. 

In the same year, the king experienced another attack of insanity, 
from which he never recovered. His son George was made regent, 
and, deserting his old friends the Whigs, retained the Tory ministry. 

Hostile operations were still carried on with great vigour in Spain 
and Portugal, and at Busaco, Albuera, and other fields of battle, 
both parties wasted their forces in indecisive engagements. At 
length, in 1812, the attention of Napoleon being engrossed by 
approaching hostilities with Eussia, Wellington commenced an active 



ENGLAND. 7]^5 

campaign. He took by storm the strong cities of Ciudad Kodrigo 
and Badajoz, defeated Marmont, who lost twelve thousand men, and 
entered Madrid itself He was, however, soon compelled to retire 
into Portugal. Being largely reinforced and supplied, he was at last 
placed in the supreme command over the allied forces, and in 1818, 
defeating Joseph Buonaparte at Vittoria, expelled the French from 
the Peninsula. The fall of Napoleon, overpowered by the northern 
allies, and his first abdication in 1814, soon followed, the British 
army at the same time entering France from the south. 

In 1812 the American government, unable to obtain redress for 
the impressment of its seamen, and for other grievances, had 
declared war. In that year, an American army, under General Hull, 
attempting the invasion of Canada, was compelled, through the 
incapacity of their leader, to surrender to an inferior force. At sea 
and on the lakes the Americans gained brilliant successes, and proved 
the naval character of Britain to be less invincible than had been 
generally supposed. In 1813 the advantage in naval conflicts still 
continued with America, the British meeting more success on land. 
In the following year a large force, under Greneral Ross, sailed up 
the Chesapeake, defeated the militia called out to oppose them, 
and destroyed all the public buildings in the city of Washington. 
Toward the close of the year, the British arms experienced a signal 
reverse. General Pakenham, with a large force, making an attack 
on the city of New Orleans, was utterly defeated by General Jack- 
son, the American commander. Exposed to a terrible fire from the 
American intrenchments, the invading force was compelled to 
retreat, leaving on the field their leader, and more than two thou- 
sand of the Peninsular veterans, who had lately been transferred to 
this service. Peace was concluded the same year. 

In 1815 occurred the return of Napoleon, his brief and brilliant 
second career, and the final extinguishment of his power on the 
field of Waterloo. After his fall, he sought the hospitalit}^ of Eng- 
land, and found it in the island-prison of St, Helena, where he 
survived for a few miserable years. 

A general peace, in which the allied powers partitioned Europe at 
their will, succeeded. The condition of England, exhausted by the 
long contest, was miserable, and frequent riots and local insurrections 
were caused by the sufferings of the poorer classes. 

The king, whom blindness, insanity, and age, had long deprived 
of all that renders life desirable, expired on the 29th of January, 



716 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

1820, in the eiglity-second. year of his age, after a reign of nearly 
sixty years, the longest in the annals of the nation. The temperate 
and domestic private character of this monarch secured him the 
respect and affection of his subjects, although his incapacity, obsti- 
nacy, and bigotry caused them incalculable injuries. 

During this long and troubled reign, which seemed to connect two 
different ages of the world, the most important changes had occurred 
in almost every political relation of England. Her territorial pos- 
sessions had greatly increased, and in particular, almost the whole 
of India had been brought under subjection to her government. 



GEORGE lY., WILLIAM IT., AND VICTORIA. 

On the death of his father, the prince-regent, under the title of 
George IV., ascended the throne. His queen, Caroline of Bruns- 
wick, from whom he had long been separated, now returned from 
Italy, and claimed her title and conjugal rights. To gratify the 
king's aversion and evade her claims, it was resolved to bring her 
to trial on a charge of conjugal infidelity; and evidence of the 
basest character was accordingly sought out. So great, however, 
was her popularity, and so questionable the proof alleged against her, 
that the ministry were compelled, in the midst of the trial, to with- 
draw their charges ; a measure which was regarded by the people as 
a triumphal acquittal. She died soon afterwards, overcome with 
grief and mortification. 

Lord Liverpool, who had for some time been premier, was suc- 
ceeded in 1827 by George Canning, the brilliant and accomplished 
orator, who, however, expired, after holding ofl&ce only four months. 
In 1828, the duke of Wellington filled the same responsible office. 
The odious test act was repealed ; and in 1829 a bill for the emanci- 
pation of the Catholics was introduced by the ministry, who saw no 
other means of preserving order in Ireland. Supported by "Welling- 
ton and Sir Eobert Peel, it was passed by a majority of an hundred 
and five, in spite of the strenuous opposition of the more bigoted or 
interested adherents of the church. 




•QUEEN VICTORIA 



ENGLAND. 717 

George IV. expired on the 2-ith of June, 1830, in the sixty-eighth 
year of his age and the tenth of his reign. This prince, though 
highly popular in his youth, and always distinguished by the 
urbanity of his manners, has left an unenviable reputation for selfish- 
ness, sensuality, and meanness in his private life, and for want of 
faithfulness and magnanimity in his public career. 

His brother, the duke of Clarence, succeeded him under the title 
of William lY. He had been long in the navy, and was rather 
distinguished by a sailor-like frankness and openness of disposition, 
than by any decided talent for government. The second French 
Revolution, which broke out just as he ascended the throne, pro- 
duced a strong desire in England for the extension of popular rights. 
The Whigs, supported by the general feeling, came into office, and 
Earl Grrey was placed at the head of the new ministry. The bill 
which he introduced for the reform of parliament, met with the 
most furious opposition from the Tory party. It provided for the 
representation of many large towns and other places which had 
heretofore been exckided, and abolished a great number of "rotten 
boroughs," which had been exclusively under the control of the 
aristocracy. By this measure, which was passed in 1832, the voice 
of the people, though still only partially heard, gained a great 
accession of strength and authority. 

During the brief reign of William IV. other most important 
m.easures were carried: the emancipation of slaves in the colonies, 
the amendment of the poor laws, and similar acts of a liberal nature. 
He died on the 20th of June, 1837, and was succeeded by his niece, 
Victoria, daughter of the duke of Kent, (third son of George III.,) 
and the present sovereign of Great Britain. 

With the principal events of her reign hitherto, most persons are 
sufficiently familiar. Great Britain, though generally preserving a 
pacific attitude towards the continental nations of Europe, has car- 
ried on an extensive and protracted warfare in the East. The 
hostilities witk the warlike nations west of India, in which at times 
her forces suffered materially, and those with China, in which that 
ancient empire was compelled to submit to the most onerous and 
humiliating conditions of peace, have been the chief events of great 
importance in her foreign relations. Though anxious, as ever, to 
preserve the so-called "balance of power" among the European 
states, her government has, in a great measure, relinquished the 
spirit of dictation and intermeddling which so often has involved her 



718 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

in hostilities, and thrown such heavy burdens on posterity. Her 
present policy appears to be one of conciliation and non-interference, 
a result due partly to the more enlightened spirit of the present age, 
and partly to the obstacles which embarrassed finance, and the fear 
of popular outbreak, would present to the success of any important or 
protracted contest. The domestic policy of England has also under- 
gone the most material modifications. The duties upon grain and 
other articles of general consumption have been repealed or essen- 
tially lightened, under the untiring and patriotic exertions of the 
League. Other relaxations in the more obnoxious features of her 
system have also taken place, the leaders of the Conservative party 
seeing the absolute necessity of a concession to popular feeling. A 
very material extension of the right of suffrage is proposed, and will 
doubtless, at no distant day, be carried into effect. 

The few last months have witnessed with amazement a strange 
revival of the Anti-Catholic excitement. An apostolical letter of 
the Pope of Eome, constituting a cardinal and other ecclesiastical 
dignitaries within the queen's dominions, has awakened a perfect 
storm of indignation among the zealous Protestants and church party. 
The most exciting meetings have been held, and addresses to the 
queen, couched in the strongest language, have been voted. In 
compliance with this strange spirit of alarm and displeasure, a bill 
has been introduced into parliament, which, though materially cur- 
tailed of its most oppressive features, nevertheless provides a con- 
siderable penalty for the assumption of ecclesiastical titles conferred 
by the Pope and derived from English localities. 

Great Britain presents, at the present moment, the singular 
spectacle of a nation controlling the most extensive dominions, dis- 
playing the highest magnificence and the most lavish expenditure, 
yet deeply involved in debt, and perhaps liable to suffer great 
convulsions from any trifling cause which might increase the pres- 
sure upon her suffering operatives. That gradual amelioration, in 
preference to sudden, disastrous, and perhaps fruitless revolution, 
may be her fate, is the hope and belief of the most wise and benevo- 
lent politicians. No American, who regards at its due value, the 
glorious heritage of heroism, genius, and national spirit which this 
country has inherited from England, can wish otherwise than that 
this splendid nationality, purified from its corruptions, and expanded 
by perfect freedom, may yet emerge into more real greatness and 
more universal prosperity than it has ever yet experienced. 



ENGLAND. 719 



THE RULERS OF ENGLAND. 



The Romans, b. c. 55toa.d.420 

The Britons and their Saxon invaders, .... a. d.420 " 584 
The Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, 584 " 827 

ANGLO-SAXON KINGS. 

Egbert, 827 " 836 

Ethelwulf, son of Egbert, 836 " 858 

Ethelbald, son of Ethelwulf, 858 " 860 

Ethelbert, son of Ethelwulf, 860 « 866 

Ethered, son of Ethelwulf, . . . . . . . 866 " 871 

Alfred the Great, son of Ethelwulf, 871 " 901 

Edward I, son of Alfred, 901 " 925 

Athelstan, son of Edward I., 925 " 940 

Edmund I, son of Edward L, 940 " 946 

Edred, son of Edward I., 946 " 955 

Edwy (the Fair), son of Edmund I., 955 " 959 

Edgiir, son of Edmund I., . , . . . . . . 959 « 975 

Edward II. (the Martyr), son of Edgar, . . . . . 975 " 978 

Ethelred, son of Edgar, 978 « 1016 

Edward II. (Ironside), son of Ethelred, 1016 " 1017 

DANISH KINGS. 

Canute, an Invader, 1017 " 1035 

Harold (Harefoot), son of Canute, . . . . . . 1035 " 1040 

Hardacnute, son of Canute, ; . . 1040 " 1042 

ANGLO-SAXON KINGS. 

Edward III. (the Confessor), son of Ethelred, . 

Harold II., son of Godwin, earl of Wessex, . . . . 

ANGLO-NORMAN KINGS. 

William I. (the Conqueror), son of Robert duke of Normandy, 

William II. (Rufus) son of William I., 

Henry I. (Beauclerc), son of William I., . 

Stephen, grandson of William I. by his daughter Adela, 

THE PLANTAGENETS. 

Henry II., grandson of Henry I., by his daughter Matilda, . 

Richard I. (Coeur de Lion), son of Henry II., 

John (Lackland), son of Henry II., . . . . 



1042 


<( 


1066 




1066 


1066 


(( 


1087 


1087 


(1 


1100 


1100 


u 


1135 


1135 


u 


1154 


1154 


u 


1189 


1189 


" 


1199 


1199 


(( 


1216 



720 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Henry ni., son of John, . from 1216 to 1272 

Edward I. (Longshanks), son of Henry HI., . . . . 1272 « 1307 

Edward II., son of Edward I., 1307 " 1327 

Edward HI., son of Edward II., 1327 " 1377 

Richard II., grandson of Edward III., by Edward the Black Prince, 1377 " 1399 

HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

Henry IV., grandson of Edward III., by John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, his fourth son, 1399 " 1413 

Henry V., son of Henry IV., 1413 « 1422 

Henry VI., son of Henry V., 1422 « 1461 

HOUSE OF TORK. 

Edward IV., the fifth in descent from Lionel duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., . 1461 " 1483 

Edward V., son of Edward IV., 1483 

Richard III., brother of Edward IV., 1483 " 1485 

HOUSE OF TUDOR. 

Henry Vn., a descendant ofJohnofGaunt, fourth son of Edward in., . . . 1485 " 1509 

Henry Vffl., son of Henry VII., . . . . . . 1509 « 1547 

Edward VI., son of Henry VIII., 1547 « 1553 

Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., 1553 « 1558 

Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII., 1558 " 1603 

HOUSE OF STUART. 

James I. (VI. of Scotland), great-grandson of Margaret, daughter of Henry vn., . . 1603 " 1625 

Charles I., son of James I., 1625 « 1649 

The Commonwealth, 1649 " 1653 

The Protectorate, Oliver Cromwell, 1653 " 1658 

The Protectorate, Richard Cromwell, 1658 " 1659 

Interregnum, 1659 " 1660 

Charles II., son of Charles I., 1660 « 1685 

James II., son of Charles I., 1685 " 1688 

house of orange and STUART. 

( William III., son of Mary, daughter of Charles I., ) ^„„o « •■ f>r> . 

JOINT REIGN OF <,. tt j i .. i- t tt >1688 " 1694 

^ Mary II., daughter 01 James 11., ) 

William m 1694 « 1702 

Anne, daughter of James H., 1702 « 1714 

house of HANOVER. 

George I., son of Sophia of Hanover, niece of Charles I., . .1714 " 1727 

George II., son of George I., 1727 « 1760 

George III., grandson of George II., 1760 « 1820 

George IV., son of George IE., 1820 " 1830 

William IV., son of George III., 1830 « 1837 

Victoria, grand-daughter of George III., 1837 " 





Danish Costaraea. 





Costume of the Swedes 



SWEDEN AID IOE¥AI. 



These countries, forming tne great Scandinavian Peninsula, are 
now, though, with separate constitutions and legislatures, united 
under a single sovereign. Originally peopled by the same race as 
the ancestors of the Finns and Laplanders, they were, at an early 
period, occupied by the Gothic and other Germanic tribes. The 
famous Odin, (rather a mythological than an historical character,) 
removing from Denmark to Sweden, became the founder of the first 
royal dynasty of that country, (the Ynglingar,) which was succeeded 
by the Ifwarian^ reigning until the middle of the tenth century. 

In Norway, the famous Harold Harfagar (the "Fair-haired"), in 
875, reduced the various principalities of that country under his 
sole sway. Other dynasties succeeded in Sweden, but in 1897, both 
kingdoms were united under Margaret of Denmark, who had mar- 
ried a Norwegian prince. The Danish rule continued, for the most 
part, until 1521, when Gustavus Vasa ascended the independent 
throne of Sweden. His grandson, the celebrated Gustavus Adol- 
phus, who came to the throne in 1611, acquired great renown by 
the wars which he waged in Germany for the support of the 
Protestant religion. Under his generalship, the Swedish nation 
acquired the first military reputation in Europe, and its power and 
territory were greatly extended. His daughter Christina, who in 1633, 
at the age of only seven, succeeded to the throne, proved a woman of 
the most masculine energy, both of body and mind ; and, on attain- 
ing the sovereignty, governed the nation with considerable success 
and intelligence. "Weary of the cares of royalty, in 1654 she 
resigned the crown, and for several years led a life of strange caprice 
and eccentricity in various European capitals. The private execu- 
tion, or rather the murder of her chamberlain, Monaldeschi, has 
stamped her character as deeply sanguinary and unprincipled. 

After the reigns of Charles X. and Charles XI,, (nephew and 
46 



722 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

grand-nepliew of Adolphus) succeeded Charles XII., the most famous 
name in Swedish history (1697). He came to the throne at the age 
of eighteen, and was speedily involved in war with the neighbour- 
ing powers. His military genius enabled him to achieve the most 
astonishing successes, and for a time, fully to support the renown of 
Gustavus Adolphus. Poland, Denmark, and other hostile nations 
were speedily overcome, and the victor dictated terms in their very 
capitals. Eussia, whose ambitious sovereign (Peter the Great) was 
eagerly desirous of obtaining a footing on the shores of the Baltic, 
was at first disgracefully repulsed and defeated ; but by continued 
perseverance and improvement in the art of war, the czar finally 
attained his object. By gradual movements, he continued to extend 
his territories, and the city of St, Petersburg, his new and splendid 
capital, soon arose amid the swampy and inhospitable regions which 
he had acquired. 

In 1707, Charles, with an army of forty-five thousand men, which 
he commanded in person, and with a lesser force, under his general, 
Lewenhaupt, invaded the- Russian empire, declaring his intention of 
treating for peace only in the city of Moscow. Peter retreated 
before him, laying waste the country as he went; and the Swedish 
army, after a brilliant commencement of the campaign, was reduced 
to extremities from the want of supplies. An injudicious march 
into the Ukraine, where Mazeppa, the hetman or chief of the Cos- 
sacks had promised to join them, produced further misfortunes. 
The Cossacks refused to transfer their allegiance, and the invader, 
after marching through the desolate wastes of the Ukraine; exposed 
to all the horrors of a Russian winter, finally, with his army dimin- 
ished to eighteen thousand men, sat down before the Russian fortress 
of Pultowa. 

The czar, with a force nearly three times as great, hastened to 
attack him (June 15th, 1709). The Swedes fought with all their 
accustomed bravery ; but, exhausted and outnumbered, were defeated 
and almost annihilated on the field of battle. The unfortunate 
Charles fled into Turkey, where for five years he remained a miser- 
able exile, dependant on the protection of the Sultan. He finally 
returned to his kingdom, and, with the aid of his faithful subjects, 
made fresh efforts to withstand the encroachments of his rivals. 
He also undertook the conquest of Norway, and in 1718, was 
killed by a cannon-shot, while besieging the little fortification of 
Frederickstadt. 




JENNY LIND, 



THE GREATEST SINGEH. OF MOnERN TIMES, 



Was "born in the city of Stockhoina, in comparatively humble circumstancee 
Her admirable command of voice, at the age of five or six, attracted the 
attention of a Swedish actress, and she "was placed under the care of Berg, a 
most skilful musician, at the Musical School attached to the P^oyal Theatre 
Her first distinguished success was at Berlin, in the year 1842 or 1843 Her 
reputation at once became Continental, and from that time she has achieved 
a succession of brj'liant triumphs in Europe, Great Britain, and America. She 
is uncLuestionably the most popular public performer who has appeared within 
the memory of man — and deservedly, her wonderful talent in music being 
fully equalled by her generosity and kindness of heart 




BERNADOTTE 



Jean-Bap iisrE-JoLES-BERNADOi'TT? was born at Pau, January 2Gth, 176-1. His 
father was an attorney. By distinguished "bravei'y, he rose to he a Marshal of 
France under the empire; and on the dethronement oi' Gustavus IV. of Sweden, 
was elected C'l'own Prince of Sweden, of which, under the title of Charles SIV., 
in 1818, he heoame king. OflFended hy the arbitrary conduct of Napoleon, he 
Joined the hostile alliance of Prussia and Austria, and used his influence and 
military skill against his former master After the fall of the latter, he ruled 
peaceably under the Russian protection, and at his death leit hi.'^ crown to his 
son Osc?ir 



SWEDEN AND NOEWAY. 723 

"His foil was destined to a barren strand, 
A petty fortress and a dubious hand; 
He left the name at which the world grew pale 
To point a moral, or adorn a tale." 

The career of Eussian aggrandizement continued, and fresh, provin- 
ces, wrung from Sweden, were added to the empire. During several 
reigns, the influence of the stronger nation grew so predominant, 
that the pohcy of Sweden has latterly become almost entirely sub- 
servient to that of Eussia, and the country itself, little more than a 
province of its imperial rival. 

The most remarkable event in Swedish history, of late years, is 
the accession of a French soldier of fortune to the throne of that 
distant and northern kingdom. In 1810, the nation, through the 
sudden death of the heir presumptive to the throne, found itself 
obliged to seek out some person of sufficient talent and reputation 
to sustain the weight of government. Marshal Bernadotte, distin- 
guished in the service of Napoleon, had acquired the good- will of a 
portion of the Swedish army by his generous conduct in the late 
hostilities; and was accordingly, by the reluctant consent of Napo- 
leon, appointed crown-prince, with the real sovereignty of the nation. 

The resolute maintenance of the independence of his kingdom 
was, no doubt, honourable to his feelings, but his concurrence with 
the allied powers in plotting the overthrow of France, and the per- 
sonal part which he took in hostilities against the country of his 
birth, must always attach to his name a degree of opprobrium. In 
1814, the sovereignty of Norway was formally annexed to that of 
Sweden, and in 1818, by the death of the king, (Charles XIII.,) 
Bernadotte assumed the crown, (which had already in reality been 
his,) under the title of Charles XIY. He died in 1844, and was 
succeeded by his son Oscar, the present sovereign, a prince, it is 
said, of amiable and enlightened character. 



ITALY 



After the dethronement o± Augustulus and the destruction of the 
"Western Eoman empire, (A. T>. 476,) the victorious Odoacer, chief 
of the Heruli, assumed the title of King of Italy, and for fourteen 
years held possession of the country. In 490, Theodoric, the famous* 
king of the Ostrogoths, by agreement with Zeno, emperor of the 
Eastern Koman empire, invaded Italy, defeated Odoacer in three 
battles, and was proclaimed as sovereign in his stead. At the death of 
the Gothic prince, in 526, the Emperor Justinian, anxious to recover 
the ancient seat of empire, despatched into Italy his generals Narses 
and the famous Belisarius, who, after a struggle of eighteen years, 
succeeded in wresting it from the invaders, and for a brief period 
reuniting it to the empire. In the year 568, the Lombards, a power- 
ful German tribe from the Elbe, invaded northern Italy, and gained 
possession of that fertile region, since called, from the name of its 
new masters, Lombardy. 

Other conquests followed, and Eome itself was only saved by the 
interference of the warlike Pepin (the Short), king of France, who, at 
the intercession of the Pope, repelled the German invaders, and 
compelled them to cede to his Holiness those territories which have 
formed the foundation of the States of the Church and the origin of 
the temporal power of the Papal See. Lombardy, soon after, was 
conquered by Charlemagne, whose devotion to the church increased 
the power of the pontificate yet farther. Sicily and Lower Italy 
remained provinces of the Eastern empire until 842, when that island 
and Calabria fell for a time into the hands of the Saracens. The 
number and frequent political changes of the various principalities 
into which the Italian peninsula has, for many centuries, been 
divided, forbid any thing more than a brief survey of the fortunes 
of the most distinguished. 

The wonderful political and ecclesiastical career of the long sue- 





Italian Costumes 





Italian Costume 



ITALY. 725 

cession of pontiffs wlio have filled the chair of St. Peter, presents a 
singular instance of the success of bold spiritual assumption over 
ignorant and superstitious force. Their fierce and protracted con- 
tests with the imperial power of Germany, (briefly described in 
the account of that country,) in despite of temporary defeat and 
humiliation, usually resulted in an increase of the papal haughtiness 
and dictatorial power. The power of disposing of crowns and sov- 
ereignties was arrogated in the most impudent, and, owing to the 
slavish mental subjection of Europe, often in the most successful 
manner. The spirited resistance of Philip IV. of France, early in 
the fourteenth century gave the first check to this insolent and 
domineering spirit; the self-will, greediness, and impatience of Henry 
VIII. of England, struck a yet heavier blow at the papal supremacy ; 
and the Great Reformation, commenced by Luther, which immedi- 
ately followed, for ever prostrated the European dictation so long 
endured from the Roman pontificate. 

While the spiritual and civil liberties of mankind were strictly 
proscribed by the Popes, they still, by their munificent patronage 
of art and letters, greatly assisted in the advancement of taste and 
refinement. Genius and successful innovation (in every department 
except politics and theology) were most liberally encouraged and 
rewarded. The names of Petrarch, of Raphael, of Michael Angelo, 
and a host of other luminaries, will always attest the merits of the 
Papal See, in promoting the revival of art, of science, and of litera- 
ture. The noted exception in the case of Galileo only illustrates 
the rule — an ecclesiastical dogma being found sufficient to outweigh 
the most noble and enfranchising discoveries which the genius of 
philosophy could effect. 

The magnificent church of St. Peter's, " the most glorious structure 
that has ever been applied to the use of religion," yet remains the 
proudest monument of the power and resources of the Holy See. The 
erection of this wonderful edifice occupied the reigns and absorbed 
the spare revenues of seventeen successive Popes. The first stone 
was laid in 1506, by Julius II., and the front completed by Paul V. 
an hundred and fifteen years afterwards ; yet even then it was not 
perfected, and immense sums have subsequently been lavished 
upon its accessaries and adornments. Two hundred and sixty-five 
years were requisite for its entire completion, and during that time 
nearly an hundred millions of dollars have been expended upon the 
work. The zealous Protestant, while viewing the magnificence of 



726 '^^^ PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 

a structure witla wliicli none erected by his own cliurcli can compete, 
feels a certain satisfaction in the reflection that, to supply the requi- 
site treasures, indulgences were vended, Luther was aroused, and 
the Great Reformation rolled in, and swept away the power and pre- 
dominance of which this splendid striicture is now but a memorial. 

The beautiful kingdom of Naples, occupying the southern extrem- 
ity of Italy, was, at a very early period, settled by Grecian colonists, 
who founded, among others, the famous cities of Crotona, Sybaris, and 
Naples — the latter of which is still the capital of Southern Italy. It 
was an important and favourite portion of the Roman empire ; after 
the fall of which, it came successively under the sway of the Goths, 
the Greek emperors, and the invading Saracens. In the year 1016, 
and for some time afterwards, the roving warriors of Normandy 
flocked to this delightful region, expelled the Saracens, and extended 
their conquests over the greater part of Sicily and Lower Italy. 
Roger II. of Hauteville (their principal house) was crowned by the 
Pope as "King of the two Sicilies." 

With the extinction of the male line of this family, it came by 
marriage under the imperial house of Hohenstaufen, with which it 
remained until the middle of the thirteenth century, when by arms 
and the papal influence, Charles of Anjou (brother of Louis IX. 
of France) gained possession of Lower Italy. 

At the death of Joanna II., the last of this line, in 1442, it fell 
under the sway of Alphonso Y., King of Sicily and Arragon ; his 
natural son Ferdinand succeeded to the acquisition; and in 1503 
Naples and Sicily were reunited under a single sovereign. They 
continued to form a part of the Spanish dominions nntil 1714, when 
by treaty they were surrendered to Austria. Twenty years after- 
wards they were regained by Spain, and in 1759, were erected into 
an independent sovereignty under Ferdinand, a younger son of the 
royal family of that country. The kingdom of Naples, soon after the 
Great Revolution, was included by the French in their Italian con- 
quests, and Napoleon in 1806 bestowed the crown upon his brother 
Joseph. In 1808, the celebrated Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon, 
was placed upon the throne, and by his enlightened and liberal 
administration became justly popular with his subjects. The bril- 
liant and successful military career of this extraordinary man, aud 
his melancholy fate, have been elsewhere described. In attempting, 
in emulation of Napoleon, with a few attendants, to regain his king- 
dom, (which he had lost on the success of the allies,) he was captured, 




MURAT. 

.IdACHiM Mdrat, Marshal of France and King of Naples;, w:\,s torn in huml'io 
"iiie in 1767 at the little village of Bastide. In attempting to regain his thron--. 
niter che fall of Napoleon, he was taken on the coast of Calabria, and shot, Octo- 
ber 13th, 1815, by order of the Neapolitan governnient 

"And thou, too, of the sno'w-'white plume, 
"Whose realm denied thee even a tomb ! 
Better thou hadst fallen "while leading 
France o'er hosts of liirelings bleeding, 
Thau Fold thyself to death and -shame 
For a meanly royal nanae. 



There, where death's brief piang was quickest. 
Where the battle's wreck lay thickest. 
Where the broken line enlarging, 

Fell, or fled across the plain — 
There, be sun'e, was Murat charging! 

There he ne'er shall charge again " 

FROM THB FRENCH 



ITALY. 727 

and suffered military execution by order of tlie contemptible Ferdi- 
nand, who bad been restored by foreign arms to tbe throne. 

The ancient and wonderful maritime republic of Yenice, after au 
existence of twelve hundred years, succumbed before the victorious 
arms of Napoleon; and since his fall has been, with other Italian 
states, under the hated and tyrannical sway of Austria. Her origin 
and duration were alike remarkable. 

" * * * * A few in fear, 
Flying away from him whose boast it was* 
That the grass grew not where his horse had trod, 
Gave birth to Venice. Like the water-fowl, 
They built their nests amid the ocean waves ; 
And where the sands were shifting, as the wind 
Blew from the north, the south; where they that came 
Had to make sure the ground they stood upon. 
Rose, like an exhalation from the deep, 
A vast metropolis, with glittering spires, 
With theatres, basilicas adorned; 
A scene of light and glory, a dominion 
Which has endured the longest among men. 

Through many an age in the mid sea she dwelt, 
From her retreat calmly contemplating 
The changes of the earth, herself unchanged. 
Before her passed, as in an awful dream. 
The mightiest of the mighty. What are these 
Clothed in their purple 1 o'er the globe they fling 
Their monstrous shadows; and while yet we speak. 
Phantom-like, vanish with a dreadful scream! 
What — but the last that styled themselves the Caesars 

* * * * followed fast by shapes 

As new and strange, Emperor, and King, and Czar, 
And Soldan, each with a gigantic stride 
Trampling on all the flourishing works of peace, 
To make his greatness greater, and inscribe 
His name in blood, * * among the rest, 
Lo, one by one, passing continually, 
Those who assume a sway beyond them all. 
Men gray with age, each in a triple crown. 
And in his tremulous hands grasping the keys 
That can alone, as he would signify. 
Unlock Heaven's gate." — ^Rogers's Italy. 

* Attila. 



728 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Italy has had even more than its share of the pohtical and revo- 
lutionary contests by which Europe, during the past few years, has 
been convulsed; and here, unfortunately, as elsewhere, the efforts 
of the people for the cause of freedom have been suppressed by for- 
eign policy and foreign bayonets. YenicC; after a resistance against 
her Austrian tyrants, which merited a better fate, has been reduced 
rather by famine than by arms ; her depopulated streets, and hastily- 
emigrating citizens, at the present moment, furnishing the best 
comment on the nature of that "paternal despotism" which has been 
so often lauded by the admirers of Austrian usurpation, 

Naples and Sicily, by an ill-concerted and premature movement, 
have gained only a fresh accession of tyranny. The defeat of Sar- 
dinia, the forced abdication of her patriotic sovereign, and the 
reviving ascendancy of Austria over the North of Italy, seem utterly 
to preclude the hope of a renewed or successful attempt for freedom 
in any of its ancient strongholds. 

The fate of Eome has been more melancholy still. The accession 
of Pius IX. to the pontificate was hailed as the commencement of 
an era of reform and liberality. To a certain extent, this prospect 
was realized; but the time-honoured abuses of the papacy, sanctioned 
by neighbouring despotism, could not suddenly be swept away : the 
people, impatient, took redress into their own hands ; and the head 
of the Catholic Church, but lately almost worshipped as a divinity, 
sought safety in flight, and assistance from foreign arms. 

The utterly selfish and unprincipled action of France, in this 
emergency, has procured her no sympathy, except such as is awarded 
to successful violence. The government of a republic, which but 
yesterday owed its existence to a sudden revolution, lent its influ- 
ence and its arms to suppress the most noble and hopeful struggle 
for freedom which Italy has ever made. The advocates of this armed 
interference have, indeed, attempted to justify it by pleading the 
necessity of anticipating Austria, and of maintaining the influence 
of France on the Italian peninsula. Whether the motive were sym- 
pathy for despotism or a mere scramble for national power the result 
has been the same. — Eome, after a defence worthy of the ancient 
republic, has been obliged to succumb to the artillery and bayonets 
of a republican army ; her brave defenders are slain, in prison, or in 
exile; and the puerilities of the hierarchal sway, protected by the 
arms of foreigners, have once more ventured back into their ancient 
haunts and brood over the Eternal City. 



THE NETHERLANDS. 



These countries, now politically called Holland and Belgium, 
have long borne the foregoing title on account of their low and 
swampy situation, being in some points even depressed below the 
level of the adjacent ocean. The industry of man has rescued from 
the sea this extensive tract, originally composed of a few sand-hills 
and marshes, half-covered by the waves, and has converted it into 
the most fertile, productive, and thickly-populated region of Europe, 
About the year B. 0. 54, Julius Ctesar subdued or conciliated its 
original inhabitants — ^the Belgians, Batavians, and Frieslanders — 
and it became a province of the Roman empire. It was next a 
portion of the Frankish, and afterwards of the Germanic empire, 
and the provincial nobles and governors appointed by the emperors 
gradually acquired their independence. Thus were founded the 
earldoms of Holland and Flanders, with other principalities. 

Philip of Burgundy, in 1369, by marriage with Margaret, heiress 
of Flanders, secured a footing in the Netherlands; and during the 
following century, by inheritance and otherwise, nearly the whole 
country came under the sway of Burgundy. Mary, daughter of 
Charles the Bold, who died in 1477, was married to the Archduke 
Maximilian of Austria; and the Netherlands, with other immense 
possessions, both in the old and new world, were inherited by their 
grandson, the celebrated Emperor Charles V. 

During the reign of his son, Philip II. of Spain, the northern 
provinces of the Netherlands proclaimed their independence, under 
the title of the ''Republic of the United Provinces." After a fierce 
and protracted struggle for their liberties and their religion, (the 
Protestant,) and after many sufferings inflicted by their Spanish 
oppressors, they finally succeeded in gaining their independences 
which, in 1648, was fully acknowledged by Spain. 

They were soon called upon to resist an oppressor still nearer 
and more formidable. Louis XIY. of France, a monarch of vast 



730 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OJF HISTOEY. 

resources, devoted to ambition, and a determined enemy of liberty 
and the reformed religion, undertook tbe subjection of these com- 
paratively feeble provinces. Their prospect appeared desperate, but 
the genius and valour of the prince of Orange (afterwards William 
III. of England) saved the republic from destruction. The dykes 
were laid open ; the sea, flowing over a vast extent of fertile and cul- 
tivated country, retarded the march of the invaders. It was even 
resolved by this patriotic and spirited people, in the event of their 
final defeat, rather than be subjected to the tyranny of French 
Catholicism, to take shipping, and transfer their entire nationality to 
the Indian Archipelago. "There the Dutch commonwealth . might 
commence a new and more glorious existence, and might rear under 
the Southern Cross, amidst the sugar-canes and nutmeg-trees, the 
Exchange of a wealthier Amsterdam, and the schools of a more 
learned Leyden." Happily, this bold and romantic enterprise was 
rendered unnecessary ; the invader was repelled ; and during an old 
age of misfortune, their grand enemy experienced the defeat and 
humiliation which he had so often inflicted on others. 

The southern provinces of the Netherlands had remained under 
the sway of Spain until, by the treaty of Eastadt, in 1714, they 
were ceded to Austria. This power, in 1797, overawed by the suc- 
cesses of Napoleon, surrendered them to France. The influence of 
the French emperor was such, that in 1806, the provinces of Holland, 
whose independence, surrounded by powerful states, was little more 
than nominal, accepted his brother Louis as their hereditary sove- 
reign, with the title of "King of Holland." The reign of the new 
monarch was of such a mild and benevolent nature, as effectually to 
conciliate the attachment of his subjects; the emperor, however, 
being dissatisfied at his unwillingness to enforce the ruinous severity 
of the continental system. 

After the fall of Napoleon, the Low Countries, in 1814, came again 
under the authority of Austria, which, however, relinquished 
her claims in favour of an arrangement by which the whole were 
constitutttd into the "Kingdom of the Netherlands." By the revolu- 
tion of 1830, a fresh separation occurred ; and while the northern 
provinces still retain the title of the kingdom of Holland or the 
Netherlands, the southern are united under the , new name of the 
"Kingdom of Belgium." 



D E Nl AE I. 



Little authentic is known of Danish history during the few 
first centuries of the Christian era. Denmark was settled at an 
early day by the German Goths, a prince of which people, named 
Odin, quitting the country to found a new realm in Sweden, left 
behind him his son Skjold, the first of that Danish dynasty which 
for many centuries afterwards bore his name. The country was 
divided into small principalities until 883, when it was united under 
a sovereign named Gorm. In the following century, Christianity 
was introduced, and diffused through the country. 

The Danish rovers, or sea-kings, had for centuries been the terror 
of the neighbouring countries; and the shores of England had 
especially suffered from their ravages. Their final conquest of that 
country, under Sweyn and Canute, in the early part of the eleventh 
century, has already been narrated. The sway of their sovereigns 
over the English, however, was brief, expiring with Hardacnute, in 
1041. Their maritime superiority still continued, and for many 
centuries, commanding the great highway to ,the Baltic, they levied 
toll upon the numerous vessels which passed the straits. 

On the death of Valdemar III., in 1376, his daughter Margaret 
succeeded him. She was married to Haco, prince of Norway; and 
at his death became possessed of that kingdom. She also laid claim 
to Sweden, the crown of which her husband, had he lived, would 
have inherited. Her ambitious scheme, by arms and policy, was suc- 
cessful; and by the famous "Union of Calmar," the sovereignty of 
the three kingdoms was solemnly assured to her and her successors. 

The cruelties of Christian II., in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, caused great discontent among his Swedish subjects; and a 
revolt, headed by a distinguished noble named Gustavus Vasa, result- 
ed, in 1523, in the detachment of Sweden from the crown of Denmark, 
and the elevation of the successful chief to the Swedish throne. 

The Eeformation, at an early period, spread widely in Denmark, 



732 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

and in the "Thirty Years' War," waged by the Protestant league 
against the German emperors, the Danish sovereign, for a time, 
though with fortune unequal to his bravery, conducted the contest 
in behalf of the confederacy. 

Denmark, for many years, was involved in perpetual wars with 
Sweden, and finally sustained the most humiliating defeat and loss at 
the hands of the celebrated Charles XII. Since that time her policy 
has been of a pacific and conciliatory nature, and for many years 
she enjoyed much peace and prosperity. It is honourable to this 
nation, that her government, before any other, took an active part 
in the abolition of the odious slave-trade. 

The neutrality and pacific attitude of Denmark could not secure 
her from becoming involved in the great vortex of European war- 
fare which succeeded the French Eevolution. The jealousy of Eng- 
land, alarmed by an unfriendly coalition of the northern powers, 
prompted her to commence hostilities, and the expedition of Nelson, 
in 1801, followed by the naval battle of Copenhagen, inflicted great 
loss and suffering upon the feebler nation. In 1807, a most outrage- 
ous infraction of the law of nations was committed by England. 
Although at peace with Denmark, she despatched a naval force too 
powerful to be resisted, demanding a complete surrender of the 
fleet and marine stores of her weaker neighbour, on the pretext 
that otherwise they might fall into the hands of France. This 
impudent demand was of course resisted by the Danish sovereign, 
and a second contest ensued, resulting in the partial destruction of 
Copenhagen, an immense loss of life, and the complete success of 
the piratical attempt. In 1813, on the triumph of the allies, Denmark 
was compelled to relinquish her sovereignty over Norway, receiving 
in return an inconsiderable accession of other territory. 

Civil hostilities, of a sanguinary nature, have recently occurred 
in Denmark. The inhabitants of the duchies of Schleswig and 
Holstein, stimulated by the revolutionary spirit of Germany, have 
made a vigorous effort to establish their independent nationality. 
At the obstinately-fought battle of Idstedt, on the 25th of July, 
1850, an army of forty-five thousand Danes, under Yon Krogh, 
attacked the revolutionary forces of twenty-eight thousand, under 
Willisen, and after a contest of two hours, in which seven thousand 
of the combatants were killed or wounded, compelled them to 
retreat. The success of the insurrectionary movement, at present, 
from the attitude of the neighbouring powers, appears hopeless. 



POETUGAL. 



This country, tlie Lusitania of the ancients, was invaded by the 
Eomans, B. C. 148. The struggle for its conquest, with some inter- 
vals, was protracted for more than a hundred years; but, in common 
with the whole Spanish peninsula, a little before the Christian era, 
it was forcibly subjected to the sway of the empire. The Visigoths 
included it in their conquests, and after them the Moors, who, in the 
eighth century, gained possession of nearly all the great south-western 
peninsula. As the power of the Christians revived, the Mahometans 
were gradually expelled from their- possessions ; and, about the mid- 
dle of the eleventh century, Ferdinand of Castile wrested from them 
a considerable part of Portugal. 

At the close of the same century, Henry of Burgundy, who mar- 
ried the daughter of the Spanish King Alphonso, received with her 
a portion of the country, erected into the earldom of Portucalia,* 
whence the present appellation of the country. Further victories 
over the Moors, under his son Alphonso, increased the limits of the 
principality, and elevated it into the dignity of a kingdom. Private 
wars, feuds, and deadly revenges, both with Christian and Saracen 
neighbours, present little of interest until the commencement of the 
fifteenth century, the famous epoch of Portuguese discovery. 

The names of John I, and his enterprising son Prince Henry, will 
always be celebrated as the earliest and most enlightened promoters 
of maritime enterprise. Under their auspices, from the year 1416 
to 1432, a great part of Western Africa and the adjacent islands 
was discovered. Under John II. and Emmanuel, enterprises of 
still greater importance were undertaken. In 1486, the famous 
Bartholomew Diaz doubled the southern extremity of Africa, which, 
from the terrors of the passage, he termed the Cape of Storms, but 
which his patron, more sanguine, denominated "the Cape of Good 

* Derived from Partus Cale, the ancient name of Oporto 



734 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

Hope." The famous expedition of Vasco de Gama, in 1497, by 
tliis route, to the western shores of India, and the momentous results 
which followed, have been narrated io the history of that country. 
By a similar expedition, in 1500, Brazil, destined to become the most 
important of the Portuguese acquisitions, was likewise discovered. 

After the disastrous fate of King Sebastian, (who, inspired by 
fanaticism, in 1578, made a crusade against the Moors of Morocco, 
and perished or disappeared at the fatal battle of Alcassar,) various 
pretenders to the throne of Portugal started up. Philip II. of Spain, 
the grandson of Emmanuel, was enabled, in 1580, by his superior 
military force, to gain possession of the crown. The kingdom 
remained an appanage to the Spanish crown until 1640, when the 
Portuguese, taking advantage of the weakness and inefficiency of 
Philip IV., threw off the yoke of Spain, and placed upon the throne 
the duke of Braganza, (descended from a natural son of John I.) under 
the title of John IV. of Portugal. His descendants, except for a 
brief interval, have ever since continued to occupy the throne. 

On the invasion of Portugal by the French, under Junot, in 1807, 
the royal family took shipping, and fled precipitately to Brazil. The 
king (John VI,) returned to his country in 1821; but his eldest 
son, Don Pedro, who remained in Brazil, in the following year con- 
verted that province into an independent empire, such as it has 
since remained. 

At the death of John VI., in 1826, his second son, Don Miguel, 
advanced pretensions to the throne, and in 1828 was proclaimed 
sovereign by the Cortes. His bigotry, cruelty, and illiberality, 
however, soon provoked powerful enemies; and Pedro, who in 
1831 had been compelled to abdicate his Brazilian crown, resolved 
on an effort to gain the sovereignty. By English assistance, he fitted 
out an expedition, and, after a short struggle, succeeded in expelling 
Miguel from the kingdom. He survived his success but a brief 
period, dving in 1834; but his daughter Donna Maria II., the pres- 
ent sovereign of Portugal, was peaceably elevated to the throne. 



SWITZERLAND. 



Switzerland, the ancient Helvetia, lias for many ages been 
known as the residence of a bold, ingenious, and liberty -loving peo- 
ple. The rugged and precipitous mountains, of which it is almost 
entirely composed, have not only served to harden the frames and 
elevate the souls of their inhabitants, but have always proved the 
most efficient barrier against foreign invasion and tyranny. It was 
originally thinly inhabited by a race of savage and hardy mount- 
aineers, who were, however, at an early period obliged to yield to 
the superior forces of the Eoman empire. After remaining a Roman 
province until A. D. 406, the country fell under the power of the 
roving nations of the Alemanni and Burgundians, then on their 
grand migration of conquest and plunder. 

About the year 500, it came under the sway of the Franks, with 
whom it remained until the death of Charlemagne, in 814. This 
event was the signal for its dismemberment from the Avestern empire, 
and many of the chiefs and nobles of Switzerland, secured by the 
inaccessible nature of their domains, succeeded in maintaining their 
independence. A nominal allegiance to the German emperors was, 
however, mostly acknowledged until the year 1308, when the 
memorable revolution commenced, which finally resulted in the 
overthrow of a foreign usurpation, and the union of several states 
into the confederacy of Switzerland (so called from Schweitz, the 
most powerful of the enfranchised cantons). 

In the annals of this contest, perhaps the earliest for European 
freedom, the name of Tell still shines with all the lustre of heroism 
and romance. The popular version of his struggles and adventures, 
if not absolutely authenticated in all particulars, displays sufficiently 
the hardihood and personal enterprise of the early assertors of the 
freedom of Switzerland. More glorious still, perhaps, is the name 
of Arnold Winkelried, who, when the Swiss, outnumbered, but 



736 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 

undaunted, were endeavouring vainly to break tlie ranks of tlie Aus- 
trian army, rushed forward, and clasping in his arms a number .of the 
opposing spears, made a breach, at the expense of his life, through 
which his countrymen pressed forward, and gained the victory. 

The patriotic resistance of the Swiss against their Burgundian 
oppressors, offers another of the brightest pages in the annals of 
freedom. At the battle of Morat, in 1476, a body of these brave 
mountaineers, with rude and primitive weapons, defeated Charles 
the Bold, who, with a fierce and disciplined soldiery, was endeav- 
ouring to reduce them to subjection. The bones of his fallen army, 
piled in a great pyramid, remained for centuries to attest the com- 
plete and sanguinary nature of their victory. 

Switzerland, from its central position among jealous and conflicting 
powerful states, has, during several centuries, been occasionally 
exposed to the march of hostile armies ; and the magnificent scenes 
which it every where presents have received fresh interest from the 
encounters of German, Russian, and French battalions, amid passes 
where the difiiculties of nature and the terrors of climate added 
immeasurably to the horrors of warfare. From the time of Hanni- 
bal, it has always been considered one of the most dangerous and 
difficult feats of military enterprise to conduct an army safely through 
the Alps — and the losses of Suwarrow, Macdonald, and other 
renowned generals, sufficiently attest the formidable nature of the 
undertaking. 

The Helvetic Republic (as the union of the Swiss cantons is polit- 
ically designated) has long been an object of jealousy to the arbitrary 
governments by which it is surrounded — a jealousy so aggravated 
by the late convulsions of Europe, and so menacing in its nature, 
that Switzerland looks eagerly for assistance to the friends of liberty 
throughout the world in an anticipated struggle for her freedom. 
The late treaty of alliance with our country (though simply com- 
mercial) has been received with general sympathy and enthusiasm. 
With a population of less than two millions and a half, it would 
seem that Switzerland must speedily succumb to any effort of the 
greater powers for her political destruction; but the battle is not 
always to the strong, and any attempt upon her nationality may yet 
be answered by a second Sempach or Morat. 

THE END. 



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